Hunting and Gathering: Paleolithic Age

Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

* Time Period: Pleistocene Era (2 million to 10,000 years ago)
* Subsistence: Hunting and Gathering
* Tool Technology: Stone tools (handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, burins, etc.)
* Cultural Phases:
Lower Paleolithic:
Sohanian Culture: Pebble tools, choppers
Acheulian Culture: Handaxes, cleavers
Middle Paleolithic: Flake tools, blades
Upper Paleolithic: Burins, scrapers, bone tools
*Key Sites:
India:
* Soan Valley (Pakistan)
* Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh)
* Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh)
* Kurnool Caves (Andhra Pradesh)
* Rajasthan (Luni Valley, Thar Desert)
Other Regions:
* Europe (e.g., France, Spain)
* Africa (e.g., Olduvai Gorge, East Africa)

Additional Notes:
* Climate and Environment: The Paleolithic period was marked
by significant climate fluctuations, including ice ages and warmer
interglacial periods. These changes influenced human migration patterns and
subsistence strategies.
* Human Evolution: The Paleolithic era witnessed the emergence of
early humans, such as *Homo erectus* and *Homo sapiens*.
* Social Organization: Paleolithic societies were likely small,
nomadic groups with simple social structures.
* Art and Symbolism: Cave paintings, rock art, and other forms
of artistic expression began to emerge during the Upper Paleolithic period,
suggesting the development of complex cognitive abilities and symbolic thought

Distribution of Palaeolithic Sites in India

1. North and West India

Kashmir
- Surrounded by Pir Panjal Hills and Himalayas.
- Handaxe found near Pahalgam (River Lidder).
- Few tools due to cold glacial conditions.
Potwar Region (West Punjab & Pakistan)
- Located between Pir Panjal and Salt Range.
- Origin of Indus and Sohan rivers due to tectonic movements.
- Sites: Adial, Balwal, Chauntra (handaxes, choppers).
Delhi
- Sites from lower Palaeolithic to microlithic.
- Anangpur: early and late Acheulian tools, habitation evidence.
Uttar Pradesh (Belan Valley)
- Sequence from lower Palaeolithic to Neolithic and protohistoric.

2. Rajasthan
Ajmer Area
- Lower, middle, and upper Palaeolithic tools found.
Didwana (Nagaur District)
- Early to middle Palaeolithic tools.
Luni River Complex
 - Palaeolithic sites in various basins (Aravalis, Chittorgarh, Kota).
Mogara Hill (Jodhpur)
- Factory site for lower to upper Palaeolithic tools.

3. Gujarat
Rivers Sabarmati and Mahi
- Lower Palaeolithic tools found.
Bhadar Valley (Saurashtra)
- Rich assemblage of tools (handaxes, cleavers).
Narbada River
- Palaeolithic sites with handaxes and cleavers.

4. Maharashtra
Coastal and Wardha-Wainganga Valleys
- Lower and middle Palaeolithic tools in various sites.
Important Sites
- Chirki (handaxes, scrapers).
- Koregaon, Chandoli, Shikarpur.

5. Central India
Narmada Valley
- Rich in Palaeolithic tools (Adamgarh).
Bhimbetka (Raisen District)
- Long sequence of occupation; rock shelters.
- Tools made from local quartzite and grey quartzite.

6. South India
Rivers Tapti, Godavari, Bhima, Krishna
- Many Palaeolithic sites reported.
Karnataka
- Significant sites: Ghatprabha (Acheulian handaxes).
Tamil Nadu
- Rivers Palar, Penniyar, Kaveri rich in tools.
- Attirampakkam: sequence from lower to upper Palaeolithic.

7. Eastern India
Jharkhand (River Raro)
- Rich in handaxes and bifacial tools.
Bihar (Paisra)
- Excavations revealed living and working floors.
Orissa
- Tools from all Palaeolithic phases in multiple locations.

Society During Palaeolithic Age

- Shelters: Rock, branches, grass, leaves.

- Settlements: Permanent vs. temporary; evidence from sites like Bhimbetka.
- Social Structure: Band societies; kinship-based, nomadic, labor division by age
and sex.

Subsistence Patterns
- Diet: Limited desires; focused on hunting and gathering.
- Faunal Remains: Evidence of large/middle-sized mammal hunting.
- Plant Foods: Gathering significant; gender roles in food collection.

Cultural Evidence
- Rock Paintings: Upper Palaeolithic art; animals depicted (bison, elephants).
- Artifacts: Tools suggest resource exploitation; grinding stones for processing
plant foods.

Pre-history and Proto-history: Geographical Factors

1. Pre-history
- Definition: Period without written sources.
- Characteristics:
- Sites with fossils of humans, plants, animals.
- Found on hill slopes, riverbanks.
- Contains stone tools from the Stone Age.
- Archaeological Evidence:
- Remains indicating climatic conditions.
2. Proto-history
- Definition: Transition between prehistory and history.
- Characteristics:
- Writing known but undeciphered (e.g., Indus culture).
- Cultural recognition by other societies.
- No writing in Chalcolithic cultures.
- Example: Ashokan inscriptions as the first decipherable writing.
3. Geographical Factors
Geographical Determinism:
- Influence of geographical conditions on human habitats and cultures.
- Environmental conditions impacting socio-economic and political forces.
Paleolithic Age:
- Evolution of Homo sapiens.
- Sites concentrated in central India and Eastern Ghats.
- Characteristics of tools: Palaeolithic culture phases.
- Environmental challenges impacting habitation.

Mesolithic Age:
- Climate changes (Holocene).
- Sedentary lifestyles due to favorable conditions.
- Domestication of animals and advanced tool technology (microliths).
- New ecological niches leading to population growth.

Neolithic and Chalcolithic Age:

- Warmer, wetter climate in Holocene.
- Village settlements and agriculture.
- Environmental changes leading to domestication of plants and animals.
- Health impacts of sedentary lifestyles.

4. Notable Scholars
V. Gordon Childe:
- Environmental changes as the impetus for food production.
Lewis R. Binford:
- External demographic stress influencing agricultural origins.
5. Health and Diet
- Comparison of hunter-gatherer diets vs. early farmers.
- Impact of sedentism on health and diseases.
- Dental health issues among early farming communities.
6. Cultural Characteristics
- Chalcolithic culture: Copper-stone tools and village settlements.
- Importance of geographical factors in shaping human habitats.

Mesolithic (Middle Stone) Culture in India (8000 BC - 4000 BC)

1. Mesolithic Tools
- Microliths
 - Made from chert and quartz.
- Geometric shapes: triangles, trapezes, crescents, scrapers, and burins.
- Other Tools
- Grinding stones, querns, and hammer stones.
- Mace heads and ring stones.

2. Mesolithic Sites
- Uttar Pradesh
- Sarai Nahar Rai
- Location: Banks of an oxbow lake.
- Finds: Geometric microliths, shells, animal bones (bison, rhinoceros,
stag).
- Burials: 11 human burials, grave goods.
- Mahadaha
- Location: Close to an oxbow lake.
- Finds: Various microliths, animal bones (wild cattle, hippopotamus).
- Burials: 28 burials with grave goods.
- Damdama
- Finds: Microliths, bone objects, hearths.
- Burials: 4 multiple burials.
- Rajasthan
- Bagor
- Largest Mesolithic site, three occupational levels (Mesolithic,
Chalcolithic, Iron).
- Pachpadra Basin & Sojat
- Rich in microliths.
- Gujarat
- Langhnaj
- Three cultural phases, microliths, human burials.
- Akhaj, Valasana, Hirpur
- Mesolithic sites near Sabarmati River.
- Madhya Pradesh
- Bhimbetka
- Famous for Mesolithic paintings, various microliths.
- Adamgarh
- Upper layers show Mesolithic tools and pottery.
- Eastern India
- Sites in Chhota Nagpur Plateau, Bengal Delta, and Brahmaputra Valley.
- Birbhanpur (West Bengal)
- Tools: Quartz, chert, habitation and factory site.
- South India
- Karnataka
- Sites like Sangankallu, microliths associated with marine resources.

3. Habitation and Lifestyle

- Shelters
- Stone-paved house floors, circular arrangements possibly marking shelters.
- Butchering Areas
- Evidence of butchering with a large number of animal bones.

4. Burials
- Limited burial evidence, few grave goods found.
- Various burial practices observed, including multiple burials.

5. Fauna and Flora

- Wild animals: Cattle, deer, pigs, jackals.
- Domesticated animals: Sheep/goats, cattle.
- Evidence of butchering and cooking practices (charred grains).
6. Pottery
- Limited evidence; small pottery fragments found, indicating potential use.

7. Cultural Significance
- First major human colonization of the Ganga plains.
- Microliths found across various regions indicate a widespread cultural
influence

Mesolithic Habitation and Living Environment**

Habitation
* Mesolithic Sites
* Permanent/Semi-Permanent
* Temporary Camps
* Environment
* Coastal Areas
* Rock Shelters
* Flat Hilltops
* River Valleys
* Lakesides
* Sand Dunes
* Alluvial Plains

Subsistence Pattern and Social Life

* Economy
* Hunting
* Fishing
* Gathering
* Early Domestication
* Diet
* Meat (various animals)
* Plant Food (roots, tubers, fruits)
* Social Life
* Rituals and Beliefs
* Art and Expression (paintings, engravings)
* Interactions with other groups
* Changes in Life
* Sedentary Settlements
* Burial Practices
* Art and Expression
* Clothing and Ornaments
* Recreation
* Hunting Methods
* Food Production
* Pottery
* Structural Activity

Mesolithic Rock Paintings and their significance:

1. Definition and Context

- Origin of Knowledge
- Lack of paper, language, and written documents.
- Insights gained through tools, pottery, habitats, bones, and cave drawings.
2. Geographic Distribution
- Regions with Rock Paintings
- Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar.
- Notable sites: Kumaon Hills (Uttarakhand), Lakhudiyar, Bhimbetka.
3. Importance of Rock Paintings
- Understanding Early Humans
 - Insights into lifestyle, food habits, daily activities, and thought processes.
- Creative Expression
- Need for creativity after fulfilling basic needs (food, water, clothing,
shelter).
- Purposes: decoration, storytelling, visual records, ritualistic purposes.
4. Themes and Subjects in Paintings
- Variety of Themes
- Daily life, sacred and royal images.
- Activities depicted: hunting, dancing, music, animal fighting, household
scenes.
- Enigmatic Paintings
- Abstract representations (e.g., elements of air, earth, and fire).
5. Notable Site: Bhimbetka
- Characteristics of Bhimbetka
- 800 rock shelters, 500 with paintings.
- Largest collection from the Mesolithic period.
- Themes include hunting, dancing, and everyday life.
6. Color Usage in Paintings
- Color Palette
- White, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green, black.
- Sixteen identifiable colors, with red and white as favorites.
- Paint Composition
- Made from ground rocks/minerals (haematite, chalcedony, limestone).
- Tools: brushes made from twigs, animal fur, and plant fibers.
7. Hunting Scenes
- Depiction of Hunters
- Individuals or groups, often wearing masks and adorned with ornaments.
- Weapons: sticks, spears, bows and arrows.
- Presence of dogs and traps depicted in scenes.
8. Animal Representations
- Variety of Animal Figures
- 29 species depicted (e.g., chital, leopard, tiger, elephant).
- Abstract and realistic portrayals.
- Portrayal of Relationships
- Depictions of fear, tenderness, and struggle for survival.
- X-ray style showing inner organs of animals.
9. Human Figures and Activities
- Representation of Humans
- Stylistic depictions (matchstick figures for men, fuller forms for women).
- Activities: hunting, gathering food, family life, and rituals.
10. Division of Labor
- Gender Roles
- Men primarily hunting; women gathering and preparing food.
- Lack of pottery depicted; alternative storage methods (gourds, leather bags).
11. Dancing and Rituals
- Community Activities
- Scenes of communal dancing with rhythmic movement.
- Depictions of masked dancers representing ritual specialists.
12. Locations of Paintings
- Painting Environments
- Walls and ceilings of rock shelters; some in
places of religious significance.
- High paintings suggesting visibility from a
distance and potential ritualistic meanings.
13. Layers of Paintings
- Layering Technique
- New paintings often layered over older ones.
- Indicates changing preferences or sacred significance.
14. Pictorial Quality
- Artistic Quality
- Simple yet charming representations of their environment.
- Vibrant, youthful depictions of both men and animals.
15. Mesolithic Rock Art in Orissa
- Notable Features
- Rock art identified in western Orissa,
particularly Sundargarh and Sambalpur.
- Co-existence of paintings and engravings,
emphasis on abstract designs.

Beginning of Agriculture (Neolithic)

1. Neolithic Age & Food Production

-Transition from Mesolithic: Marked beginning of food production.
- Food Production: Cultivating cereals (e.g., barley, wheat, rice) and
domesticating animals for milk, meat, and labor.
- Stone Tools: Neolithic tools (ground, pecked, polished).
-Characteristics:
- Sedentary life.
- Small village communities.
- Division of labor (based on sex).
2. Key Definitions and Terms
-Sir John Lubbock:
Coined "Neolithic."
- V. Gordon Childe:
- Neolithic Revolution: Shift from foraging to food production.
- Defined as a self-sufficient, food-producing economy.
-Miles Burkitt:
Characteristic traits include agriculture, animal domestication, stone
tools, pottery.
3. Cultural and Social Shifts
-Technological Advances:
- Improved food availability → Population growth.
- Rise in size/number of settlements.
- Complex social-political structures.
- Pottery and Sedentism:
- Pottery invention.
- Increased sedentary lifestyles, small villages.
- Division of labor.
4. Theories of Agricultural Origins
- V. Gordon Childe:
- Environmental changes (Pleistocene end) led to food production.
- Robert J. Braidwood:
- Human adaptation and environmental familiarity in “nuclear zones.”
- Lewis R. Binford:
- Emphasized population/environmental stress and migration.
- Kent Flannery:
- Focused on adaptive advantages, feedback food procurement systems.
5. Agricultural Beginnings in India
- Independent Origin: Indigenous, not from Mesopotamia.
- Staples in India:
- Wheat, Barley: Mehrgarh, Pakistan.
- Rice: Koldihwa, Uttar Pradesh.
-Millet: Sites in South India.
- Timeline: 8th millennium BC to 1000 BC.
6. Evidence and Archaeological Markers
-Animal Domestication:
- Morphological changes (smaller size, dental/horn changes).
-Plant Domestication:
 - Morphological differences (wild vs. domesticated).
- Artifacts: Grinding stones, sickles; art remains show domestication.
7. Neolithic Revolution vs. Transformation
Neolithic as a Revolution
- Heavy tools, sedentism, reliance on agriculture.
Transformative Phase
- Pottery and wheel use (spinning, weaving).
- View shift: Gradual transformation rather than an abrupt "revolution."

Neolithic cultures in various regions of the Indian subcontinent,

1. North-Western Region (Afghanistan, Pakistan - Kachi Plains, Baluchistan) (7000–

3000 BCE)
- Sites: Mehrgarh, Kili Gul Mohammad, Mundigak, Sur Jangal, Dabar Kot, Rana
Ghundai, Gumla, Rahman Dheri, Sarai Khola
-Economy: Early wheat, barley cultivation, domesticated animals (sheep, goat,
cattle)
- Tools: Microliths, stone adzes, hand-axes, bone tools
-Habitation: Mud-brick houses, storage compartments
- Pottery: A-ceramic to wheel-made, polychrome wares, black-on-red
- Craft: Ornaments, terracotta, metallurgy evidence (Period III)
-Burials: Red ochre, grave goods, lapis lazuli, turquoise
-Notable Sites:
- Mehrgarh: Earliest agriculture, mixed economy, diversified crafts
- Rana Ghundai: Stylized animal motifs on pottery, semi-nomadic to settled
- Rehman Dheri: Fortified, transition to Kot Dijian, early pottery use
2. Northern Region (Kashmir Valley) (2500–1500 BCE)
- Economy: Limited agricultural evidence, no mesolithic precursor culture
- Unique Features: Bone tools, semi-sedentary lifestyle
- Burials: Use of red ochre in burials, some with animal accompaniments
3. Central India (Vindhyan Outcrops - Belan Valley) (4000–1200 BCE)
- Sites: Allahabad, Mirzapur, Reva, Sidhi
- Economy: Rice as a staple crop, agriculture evolution
- Habitation: Mud and thatch houses, storage structures
4. Mid-Ganga Valley (Eastern UP, Bihar) (2000–1500 BCE)
- Sites: Chirand
- Economy: Agriculture with mixed grain cultivation (rice, wheat)
- Tools: Microlithic tools, bone needles and awls
- Unique Features: Limited copper use, ornamental and burial traditions
5. Eastern Region (Chhota Nagpur Plateau, Orissa, West Bengal)
- Economy: Limited agriculture evidence, stone tool usage
- Tools: Microlithic, ground stone axes
6. North-Eastern Region (Assam, Sub-Himalayan Region)
- Economy: Hunting and foraging; no significant agricultural remains
- Tools: Neolithic tools with microlithic prevalence
7. Southern Region (Peninsular India) (2500–1500 BCE)
- Sites: South Indian sites with ragi and millet
- Economy: Millet and ragi cultivation
- Habitation: Settled communities, mixed agricultural economy
- Tools: Ground and polished stone tools, bone needles and beads
Additional Contextual Features:
- Regional Tool Variations: Stone axes styles differentiate regions
- Coexistence: Some Neolithic cultures overlapped with Harappan Civilization
- Dietary Variations: Wheat/barley in Mehrgarh, rice in Central India,
millet/ragi in South

Early Farmers (Neolithic Culture) of Central India (Vindhyan fringes in Southern

Uttar Pradesh)
 Geographic Setting:
- Regions Covered: Belan Valley, Adwa, Son, Rihand, Ganga, Lapari, Paisuni rivers
(6000–3000 BCE)
- Landscape: Thick forests, rich in wild rice and grasses
- Sites: Chopani-Mando, Koldihawa, Mahagara (All Allahabad District)

Cultural Characteristics:
1. Transition from Mesolithic to Neolithic:
- Early stone-age hunting grounds, developed from Mesolithic roots
- Use of microlith blades and heavier stone tools
2. Agriculture and Domestication:
- Earliest domesticated rice and wild rice evidence
- Domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats; evidence of fishing with bones of
turtles and fish
3. Site Details:
- Koldihwa:
- Three cultural sequences (Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Iron Age)
- Evidence of rice agriculture (rice husk impressions on burnt clay)
- Tools: Stone blades, polished celts, bone tools
- Pottery: Handmade, including cord-marked, plain red, black-red ware
- Mahagara:
- Single culture (Neolithic)
- Evidence of cattle domestication (cattle pen, hoof marks)
- Pottery: Cord-impressed, handmade
- Chopani-Mando:
- Sequence from epi-paleolithic to Mesolithic/Neolithic
- Early pottery, food processing tools, portable querns
Settlements:
- Structures: Wattle-and-daub huts, floors, post-holes, cattle pens
- Artifacts: Celts, adzes, cord-impressed pottery

Neolithic Culture of Northern Region (Kashmir Valley)

Geographic Setting:
- Regions Covered: Kashmir Valley along Jhelum River floodplains
- Landscape: Former lake beds (karewas), now sites of neolithic settlements
- Timeframe: Approx. 3500–1500 BCE

Cultural Characteristics:
1. Distinct Features of Kashmir Neolithic:
- Absence of preceding Mesolithic phase
- Pit-dwelling settlements with red-ochre-smeared floors
2. Agriculture and Domestication:
- Evidence of wheat, barley, lentils cultivation
- Domesticated animals (cattle, sheep, goat, dog)
3. Important Sites:
- Burzahom:
- Multi-period site (Neolithic, Megalithic)
- Early phases with pit dwellings and post-hole roofs
- Tools: Stone axes, bone tools, harpoons, 'harvesters'
- Burials: Human and animal burials (dog burials with humans)
- Gufkral:
- Pit dwellings, later ground-level houses
- Pottery: Early aceramic phase, later handmade wheel-made pottery
- Tools: Bone arrowheads, spindle whorls for weaving
- Swat Valley Connections: Similarities with Ghaligai cave, Swat Valley in
Pakistan (pottery, pit dwellings)
Settlements:
- Structures: Pit dwellings, storage pits, post-holes, ladders for entry
- Artifacts: Stone and bone tools, terracotta objects, evidence of hunting and
weaving

Neolithic Cultures of the Mid Ganga Valley & Surrounding Regions

1. Mid Ganga Valley (Eastern UP and Bihar)

- Geographical Features
- Rivers: Ganges, Saryu, Ghaghra, Rapti
- Settlements near river banks: Narhan, Imlidih, Sohagaura, Chirand, Teradih,
Senuwar, Maner
- Key Sites & Findings
- Chirand: Bone tools (needles, bangles), terracotta figurines, wattle-and-
daub houses, diverse pottery (red, grey, burnished), agriculture (rice, wheat)
- Sohagaura: Domesticated rice husks in pottery, cord-impressed pottery
- Senuwar: Diverse crops, wattle-and-daub houses, copper objects, and semi-
precious beads
- Economic Aspects
- Subsistence: Rice, wheat, barley cultivation; fishing and hunting
- Tools & Artifacts: Microliths, stone pestles, terracotta objects, no copper
- Craft Production: Bone and stone ornaments, terracotta figurines
2. Eastern India (Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha)
- Key Sites & Findings
- Kuchai (Odisha): Polished stone tools, chisels, grinding stones
- Golbai Sasan: Handmade pottery with tortoise-shell impressions
- Pandu Rajar Dhibi (WB): Evidence of rice, microliths, pottery (black-and-
red ware)
- Cultural Characteristics
- Pottery Styles: Cord-marked, incised designs, and painted pottery
- Artifacts: Celts, ground tools, bone tools
3. Northeast India (Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur)
- Notable Sites & Features
- Daojali Hading (Assam): Cord-impressed pottery, stone tools, grinding slabs
- Sarutaru, Marakdola, Napchik (Manipur): Stone and wood artifacts
- Distinct Cultural Traits
- Tools: Shouldered celts, ground axes
- Pottery: Affinity with SE Asia pottery styles, especially cord-impressed
4. South India (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu)
- Geographical Context
- River valleys of Krishna, Tungabhadra, Bhima; significant site
concentration in Raichur and Shorapur Doabs
- Key Sites
- Ash Mounds: Utnur, Kupgal, Tekkalakota (seasonal cattle camps with burned
dung mounds)
- Permanent Settlements: Sangankallu, Maski (storage pits, terracotta
figurines, mixed economy)
- Budihal: Butchering area, ash mound, tools (chert, bone tools, semi-
precious beads)

- Subsistence & Economy

- Primary Crops: Millet, pulses, date palm; cattle-based economy with mixed
subsistence
- Animal Domestication: Cattle, goats, sheep; rituals around cattle herding

life of Neolithic people:

1. Village Communities
- Self-sufficient village life
- Food as social activity: hospitality, gift-giving, trade
 - Varied social organizations: small vs. large communities
2. Subsistence Patterns
- Environmental adaptation affects food resources
- Craft differences (tools, pottery, houses)
3. Burial and Cultic Beliefs
- Burial practices vary, reflecting beliefs
- Cult objects (Mother Goddess figurines, bull figurines)
- Funerary customs (red ochre, joint human-animal burials)
4. Sedentary Life
- Mix of sedentary and migratory lifestyles
- Increased sedentariness with farming
5. Health and Diet
- Comparison with hunter-gatherers: protein-rich diet vs. high-carb in farmers
- Farmers vulnerable to diseases, affecting bones
6. Demographic Changes
- Higher birth rates, lower mortality, increased population
- Stable environment supports children and elderly
7. New Tools and Social Organization
- Tool innovation for farming and storage
- Planning required for food storage
- Division of labor among men, women, children
8. Role of Women
- Potential leaders in plant domestication
- Involvement in pottery for storage and cooking
9. Craft and Trade
- Specialized crafts and trade at sites like Mehrgarh
- Evidence of craft specialization in settlements
10. Social and Political Structures
- Social ranks visible in grave goods and house sizes
- Need for political control in larger settlements
11. Changes in Beliefs and Cultic Practices
- Link between fertility and religion (goddess worship)
- Bull figurines as possible cult objects
12. Funerary Customs
- Variety in grave goods suggests afterlife beliefs
- Secondary burials indicate complex rituals
13. Chronology and Coexistence
- Timeline (7000-3000 BCE) for early farming
- Coexistence with hunter-gatherers, chalcolithic communities
14. Cultural Evolution
- Base for large-scale civilizations
- Agriculture and food production as cultural foundation

Beginning of Agriculture (Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods)

I. Chalcolithic Cultures
- Characteristics:
- Non-urban, non-Harappan cultures
- Use of stone and copper tools

- Key Cultures:
- Banas Culture: Banas basin, Rajasthan
- Kayatha Culture: Central India (Narmada, Tapi, and Mahi valleys)
- Malwa Culture: Malwa, parts of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra
- Jorwe Culture: Maharashtra

- Aspects of Chalcolithic Cultures:

- Settlement patterns
- Economic practices
 - Mortuary practices
- Religious beliefs

II. Copper Hoard Culture

- Key Sites: Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa,
Karnataka
- Artifacts:
- Copper tools (harpoons, celts, rings, swords, etc.)
- Associated with Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP)
- Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP):
- Dates: 2000 B.C. to 1500 B.C.
- Found in Ganga-Yamuna Doab region
- Small riverbank settlements with temporary habitation

III. Black and Red Ware (BRW) Culture

- Period: 2400 B.C. to early centuries C.E.
- Characteristics:
- Black color on the inside, red on the outside
- Wheel-turned pottery with a fine fabric
- Key Sites: Atranjikhera, Jodhpura, and Noh
- Objects Found:
- Copper and iron tools, beads, bone tools
- Variations in pottery style across regions

IV. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture

- Period and Sites:
- Locations in North India: Haryana, Upper Ganga Valley, Sutlej Basin
- Characteristics:
- Painted in black, grey to ash-grey pottery
- Structures: Wattle and daub houses, mud bricks
- Objects Found:
- Copper, iron, glass, bone tools
- Ornaments, terracotta figurines

V. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) Culture

- Period: Circa 700 B.C. onwards
- Characteristics:
- Distinctive glossy, black pottery with some color variety
- Luxurious ware indicating social hierarchy
- Key Sites: Taxila, Kausambi, Hastinapura
- Urban Features:
- Fortifications, drainage systems, large-scale building
- Objects Found:
- Iron tools, silver coins, semi-precious stone ornaments

Structures and Society

1. Urban Structures and Architecture
- Settlement Layout
- Excavations at Hastinapura, Atranjikhera, Kausambi
- Evidence of planned cities and building activity
- Housing
- Burnt bricks and timber used in construction
- Roofs covered with tiles
- Room shapes: Square and rectangular
- Drainage and Hygiene
- Complex drainage system at Hastinapura
- Reflects community’s emphasis on hygiene and urban planning
- Fortifications
- Mud or brick walls and moats for defense
 - Fortification at Kausambi: Guard rooms, towers, gates
- Reflects political tensions and need for protection
2. Material Culture and Pottery
- Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP)
- Glossy luxury pottery with thin walls
- Colors: Black, golden, silver, white, steel blue, chocolate
- Rare, valuable, indicating social divisions
- Pottery Design
- Unpainted or painted with simple bands, dots, circles
- Shapes: Bowls, dishes
- Other Pottery Types
- Variety in pot shapes reflects functional diversity in households
3. Technological Advancements
- Metal Objects
- Copper and iron tools and weapons widespread
- Iron implements: Agricultural (hoes, sickles), weapons (arrowheads,
spearheads)
- Indicates technological progress and skilled craftsmanship
- Coins and Economy
- Silver punch-marked coins from NBP culture phase
- Suggests shift from barter to currency-based trade
4. Social Structure and Ornamentation
- Ornaments
- Beads from semi-precious stones, glass, clay
- Bangles, rings, and pendants in various materials (terracotta, shell,
copper)
- Indicates trade, social status, and craftsmanship
- Terracotta Figurines
- Human and animal figurines with accessories
- Toy carts indicate use of carts as transportation
- Represents artistic development and everyday life artifacts
5. Economy and Trade
- Agriculture
- Crops: Rice, wheat, barley, millet
- Animal husbandry: Cattle, sheep, goat, pig, fish
- Trade Links
- Evidence of trade connections between Taxila, Hastinapura, Sravasti,
Kausambi
- Items exported include textiles, spices, iron, steel goods
- State Control over Trade
- State monopoly on industries (gold, copper, iron, gems)
- Arthashastra references government control over economic resources
6. Cultural Symbols and Arts
- Seals and Sealings
- Early inscriptions in Brahmi script
- Significance in communication and trade labeling
- Guilds and Professions
- Guilds mentioned in Buddhist texts: Wood, metal, stone, ivory, textiles
- Represents specialized labor and organized professions

Chalcolithic Cultures of Western, Central, and Eastern India (2nd–1st Millennium

B.C.)

1. Geographical Regions
- Western India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
- Central India: Madhya Pradesh
- Eastern India: Bihar, West Bengal
2. Distinctive Features
- Pottery: Predominantly black-on-red painted pottery
 - Stone Blade Industry: Highly specialized stone tools
- Limited Use of Copper: Copper known but scarce
3. Notable Cultures and Sites
- Kayatha Culture (2000–1800 B.C.): Kayatha (near Ujjain), river Kalisindh
- Ahar/Banas Culture (2000–1400 B.C.): Ahar, Banas river (Rajasthan)
- Savalda Culture (2000–1800 B.C.): Savalda (Maharashtra), Tapi valley
- Malwa Culture (1700–1200 B.C.): Malwa region, Narmada river sites (Maheshwar,
Navdatoli)
- Prabhas Culture (1800–1500 B.C.): Prabhas Patan (Gujarat)
- Rangpur Culture (1400–700 B.C.): Rangpur (Gujarat)
- Jorwe Culture (1500–700 B.C.): Jorwe (Maharashtra), prominent at Inamgaon
- Chirand Culture (1500–750 B.C.): Chirand (Bihar), rice, fish-based diet
4.. Pottery Types
- Kayatha Ware: Red slipped, combed, buff painted pottery
- Ahar Ware: Black and red, painted in white
- Malwa Ware: Buff slip with dark patterns
- Jorwe Ware: Red painted, distinctive spouted jars
5. Economic Activities
- Agriculture & Crops: Barley, wheat, rice, millet (bajra, jowar), lentils,
beans
- Animal Husbandry: Cattle, sheep, goat, dog, pig, horse
- Farming Practices: Crop rotation, irrigation, ploughshare made from cattle
bone
6. Housing & Habitation
- House Types: Circular, rectangular huts with mud walls; large houses in Jorwe
culture
- Inamgaon Features: Planned layout, east-west alignment, fire pits, chullahs in
kitchens
- Fortifications: Inamgaon and Eran have fortified walls
7. Social Structure & Craft Specialization
- Social Hierarchy: Artisans (potters, goldsmiths) on settlement peripheries;
wealthier farmers centrally located
- Crafts: Pottery, jewelry (copper, stone beads), tools, weapons
8. Religious Beliefs
- Mother Goddess Worship: Fertility symbols in figurines
- Burials: North-south orientation, grave goods, urn burials for children
- Symbolic Artifacts: Painted jars, animal figurines in copper and terracotta
9. Decline and Environmental Factors
- Climate Change: Increased aridity in Late Jorwe period, leading to pastoralism
- Site Abandonment: Many sites deserted, later reoccupied during urbanization
phase (5th–4th century B.C.)

Chalcolithic Pottery as a Source of History

1. Introduction to Chalcolithic Period

- Definition
- First use of Copper alongside stone tools
- Known as the Chalcolithic period (Copper-Stone Age)
- Lack of Literary Tradition
- No written records; reliance on archaeological sources
2. Importance of Pottery
- Main Source of Historical Insight
- Provides clues about culture and lifestyle
- Black and red pottery predominant
- Wheel-made and handmade pottery
3. Advanced Ceramic Industry
- Manufacturing Techniques
- Important craft of the period
 - Well-fired pottery (inverted firing technique)
- Variety in shape, size, and color
- Cultural Examples
- Jodhpura Culture: Orange to red ware with incised designs
- Ganeshwar Culture: Coarse red-slipped pottery, typical shapes (bowls, jars)
- Ahar Culture: Distinctive white painted black-and-red ware
- Malwa Culture: Buff or cream slipped pottery with rich designs
- Jorwe Culture: Black-on-red pottery with geometric motifs
4. Aesthetic and Functional Aspects
- Use of Colors
- Different colors reflect aesthetic sensibility
- Indicates knowledge of making colors from natural materials
- Variety in Sizes and Shapes
- Large storage jars for grains (agricultural surplus)
- Perforated jars for winemaking
- Narrow-neck jars for water storage
5. Cultural Practices
- Burial Practices
- Grave goods found in pottery
- Suggests belief in afterlife and social inequalities
- Influence from Harappan Civilization
- Similarities in wheel-made pottery styles
- Evidence of cultural contact between Ganeshwar and Harappan cultures
6. Trade and Agriculture
- Pottery Trade
- Inamgaon pottery found at distant sites, indicating trade networks
- Agricultural Insights
- Charred grains of rice and impressions of paddy husks indicate rice
cultivation
- Artistic Representations on Pottery
- Designs reflect hunting (birds, tools)
- Geometric designs indicating aesthetic and possibly religious beliefs
- Evidence of domestication of animals (dogs, cattle)
7. Limitations of Pottery as a Source
- Partial Reflection of Material Culture
- Only provides fragments of history, not a complete picture
- Need for Cross-Referencing
- Interpretations of pottery usage must be corroborated with other sources
(tools, settlement patterns