Magnetism and Matter

Magnets and Magnetism

A magnet is a material that has both attractive and directive properties. It
attracts small pieces of iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, etc. This property of attraction
is called magnetism. When suspended freely, a thin long piece of magnet tends
to rest nearly in the geographical north-south direction.

Artificial Magnets
Generally, the natural magnets are not strong enough magnetically and have
inconvenient shapes. The pieces of iron and other magnetic materials can be
made to acquire the properties of normal magnets. Such magnets are called
artificial magnets. The main advantage of their magnets is that they can be
made much more strongly than the natural magnets and also of any convenient
shape and size. They are generally available in the following forms:
1. Bar magnets
2. Magnetic needles
3. Horseshoe magnets
4. Ball-ended magnets

Basic Properties of Bar Magnets

1. Attractive property
2. Directive property
3. When a magnet is suspended or pivoted freely, it aligns itself in the ge-
ographical north-south direction. The pole of the magnet which points
towards the geographical north is called the North Pole (N). The other
pole which points towards the geographical south is called the South Pole
(S).
4. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
5. Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.

Magnetic Induction
A magnet induces magnetism in a material placed near it. This phenomenon is
called magnetic induction. When the North Pole of a powerful magnet is placed
near or close to a soft iron bar, the closer end of the bar becomes the South
Pole, and the farther end becomes the North Pole. As a result, the magnet
attracts the iron bar. This induction precedes attraction.

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Axial Line
The straight line passing through the north and south pole of a magnet is called
the axial line and the length of the magnet is called the equatorial line of the
magnet.

Axial Line
N S −
−
Equatorial Line

Magnetic Field
It is the space around a magnet or a current-carrying conductor in which its
magnetic effect can be felt. In order to visualize a magnetic field graphically,
Faraday introduced the concept of MF (magnetic field) lines.

Magnetic Field Lines

It is the imaginary curve, the tangent to which at any point gives us the direction
of MF (magnetic field) at a point.

(Space for diagram)

1. Uniform MF:
2. Non-uniform MF:

Properties of MF Lines
1. The MF lines of a magnet form closed continuous loops. The magnetic
field lines extending through the body of the magnet.

Magnetic Fields and Dipoles

Magnetic Field (MF) Properties
1. Outside the body of the magnet, the direction of MF lines is from N to S.
2. The magnitude of MF at any point is represented by the number of MF
lines passing normally through a coil area around that point.

3. The relative closeness of field lines indicates the strength of MF at that

region.

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 4. Two MF can’t intersect each other. Because at the point of intersection
we get two directions of magnetic field, which is not possible.
5. MF exists inside every magnetized material.
Note: The electric field lines continuously curve which are not closed
whereas MF lines are closed continuous curves.

Magnetic Dipole
The MD consists of two unlike poles of equal strength and separated by a small
distance e.g., Bar magnet, a compass needle.
The distance between the poles of the MD is called the magnetic length of
the magnet.

(Space for diagram)

MD Moment
It is defined as the product of pole strength of either (m) and magnetic length
(2l) of the magnet, represented as:

M = m(2l)
Magnetic length is considered as a vector quantity and its direction is from
S to N.
MD moment is a vector quantity and its direction is from S to N pole of the
magnet.
SI unit of MD moment: Joule/Tesla
SI unit of pole strength (m): A/m
Note: Pole strength depends on the nature and cross-sectional area of the
material.

Magnetic Dipole and Electric Dipole

(Space for diagram)

Cutting Bar Magnets

1. When we cut a bar magnet along the length into two equal parts, then its
pole strength becomes half. m
m′ =
2
(Space for diagram)

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 2. When we cut a bar magnet perpendicular to its length into two equal
parts, then its pole strength remains the same.

m=m

(Space for diagram)

Magnetic Field Strength due to Bar Magnet

The strength of MF at any point is defined as the force experienced by a hypo-
thetical unit N pole.

(Space for diagram)

Problem 1
Calculate the force F acting between two magnets of length 15 cm each. The
pole strength is given as 80 A m each. The separation between their N poles is
10 cm and their S pole is also 10 cm.

Force of repulsion between N1 and N2 :

µ0 m1m2 10−7 × 80 × 80
F1 = = = 0.064 N
4π r2 (0.10)2
Force between S1 and S2 (repulsion) :
µ0 80 × 80
F = = 0.004 N
2 4π (0.40)

Force between N1 and S2 (attraction) :

µ0 80 × 80
F = = 0.010 N
3 4π (0.25)

Force between S1 and N2 (attraction) :

µ0 80 × 80
F = = 0.010 N
4 4π (0.25)

Resultant Force:
F = F1 + F2 − F3 − F4 = 0.064 + 0.004 − 0.010 − 0.010 = 0.048 N (repulsive)

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Notes
The pole strength, also called magnetic charge. Thus we assign magnetic charge
+m to the N pole and −m to the S pole.

Problem 2
Two magnetic poles, one of which is 4 times stronger than the other, exert a
force of 5 gf on each other when placed at a distance of 10 cm. Find the
strength of each pole.

Let the pole strengths of the 2 dipoles be m1 and 4m1.

F = 5 gf = 5 × 10−3 kgf = 5 × 10−3 × 9.8 N
r = 10 cm = 10 × 10−2 m

µ0 m1 × 4m1
F = 4π
r2
10 × m1 × 4m1
−7
5 × 10−3 × 9.8
(0.10)2
=

m2 = 12.5 × 9.9
1
m1 = 35 A m, m2 = 4m1 = 140 A m

Problem 3
A steel wire of length l has a magnetic moment m. It is bent into a semicircular
arc. What is the new magnetic moment?
Magnetic moment
Pole strength =
l
When the wire is bent into a semicircular arc, the separation between the
poles changes from l to 2r, where r is the radius of the semicircular arc.

New MM = Pole strength × distance between the poles

m m l 2m
= × 2r = × 2× =
l l π π

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Magnetic Field (MF) of a Bar Magnet
MF intensity at a point on the axis of a bar magnet.

Diagram here
Let NS be a magnet of length 2l and pole strength m. Suppose the MF is
to be determined at a point P which lies on the axis of the magnet at a distance
d from its center, as shown in the diagram.

Force on a unit north pole placed at point P :

µ0 m
F =
N 4π (d − l)2 (towards N)
Similarly, the force exerted by the south pole on the unit north pole:
µ0 m
F = (towards left)
S
4π (d +
l)2

Force experienced by a unit north pole at point P :

|F | − |F µ0 1 1
|= m − (towards R)
N S
4π (d − l)2 (d + l)2

Image 1
Axial:
M0 M 2l
Axial =
4π (r2 − l2)2
µ0 2M
Axial = Towards axis
4π r3

M = m × 2l
For short bar magnet l ≪ r, therefore we have
µ0 2M
Axial =
—TR
4π r3
µ0 2M
Axial =
4π r3
MF at any axial point of magnet dipole is in the same direction of magnetic
dipole moment M.

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2. MF of a bar magnet at an equatorial point:
Consider a bar magnet NS of length 2l and pole strength m. Suppose the MF
is to be determined at a point P lying on the equatorial line of the magnet NS
at a distance r from its center.

r= √r2 + l2 /2

Imagine a unit north pole placed at P, then from Coulomb’s law of MF, the
force exerted by N-pole of the magnet on
Unit N pole u˙ :
FN 0 µ0 m along NP → Q
= 4π
x2
Similarly, the force exerted by S pole of the magnet on unit north pole u˙ :
µ0 m
FS = 4π along PS
x2
As the magnitude of FN0 and FS are equal, their vertical components get
cancelled while the horizontal components add up along PR. Hence the MF
at equatorial point P is

Bequa = Net force on unit N pole placed at P

= FN0 cos θ − FS cos θ

= 2FN0 cos θ
µ0 m
=2 cos θ along PR
4π x2

Bequa = µ0 m along PR
2
4π (r +
l2)3/2

Bequa = −µ0 2 m2 3/2

4π (r + l )
Again, for short magnet l ≪ r so we have

Bequa = µ0 M3
−4π r
MF of a bar magnet of length 2l and dipole moment M.

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Image 2
Unit to pole u:

FN 0 = µ0 m along NP → Q
4π
x2
Similarly, the force exerted by S pole of the magnet on unit north pole u:
µ0 m
FS = 4π along PS
x2
As the magnitude of FN0 and FS are equal, their vertical components get
cancelled while the horizontal components add up along PR. Hence the MF
at equatorial point P is

Bequa = Net force on unit N pole placed at P

= FN0 cos θ − FS cos θ

= 2FN0 cos θ
µ0 m
=2 cos θ along PR
4π x2

Bequa = µ0 m along PR
4π (r2 +
l2)3/2

Bequa = −µ0 2 m2 3/2

4π (r + l )
Again, for short magnet l ≪ r so we have

Bequa = −µ0 M3
4π r

Image 3
1.
Baxial = µ0 2MY on the axial line
4π (r2 −
2. l2 ) 2
Bequa µ0 M on equatorial line
= − 4π (r2 − l2)3/2
For short magnet l r,
3. ≪
B µ0 2M
axial =

8
4 π r3

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 4.
Bequa µ0 M
= −4π r3

Baxial = 2 × |Bequatorial|
Q: 2 short magnets P and Q are placed one over another with their magnetic
axes mutually to each other. It is found that the resultant field at a point on
⊥
the prolongation of the axis of P is inclined at 30◦ with the axis. Compare the
magnetic moments of 2 magnets.

(space for diagram)

As point A lies on the axial line of P, therefore
µ0 2M1
B= → (i)
1
4 r
The point A lies on the broad side on the position of Q.

µ0 m2
B2 = 4π r3 → (ii)

B2 m2
= ... (3)
B1 2m1
B2 = tan 30◦ = √1 ... (4)
B1 3
From (3) and (4):
√
1 m2 m1 3
√ = = =
3 2m ⇒ m 2
1 2
Q.2 Identical magnetic dipoles of magnetic moment 1Am² each are placed
at a separation of 2m with their axes perpendicular to each other. What is the
resultant magnetic field at a point midway between the dipoles?

µ0 2m 2
B 1= · = 10−7 ·
= 2 × 10−7 T
4 1
µ0 rm 1
B = · = 10−7 · = 10−7 T
2
4π r3 1
Resultant Br:
q
Br = B2 + B2
2 1

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 √
= (10−7)2 + (2 × 10−7)2
√
= 5 × 10−7 T
If the resultant field Br makes an angle θ with B1, then
B2
tan θ =
B1 = 10−7 = 0.5
2×
10−7
θ = tan−1(0.5) ≈ 26.57◦

Torque on Magnetic Dipole in a Magnetic Field

Consider a bar magnet NS of length 2l placed in a uniform magnetic field B.
Let m be the pole strength of each of its poles. Let the magnetic axis of the bar
magnet make an angle θ with the field B as shown in the figure.

M = magnetic
moment m = pole
strength

Force on N-pole = mB along B

Force on S-pole = mB opposite to B
The forces on the two poles are equal and opposite. They form a couple.
The moment of the couple or torque is given by:

τ = Force × distance
τ = mB × 2l sin
θ τ = mB(2l sin
θ)
τ = MB sin
θτ =M×
B
The direction of the torque is given by the right-hand screw rule.
The effect of the torque makes the magnet adjust itself perpendicular to the
field B. That’s why a freely suspended magnet aligns itself in the north-south
direction, because the Earth has its own magnetic field which exerts torque on
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the magnet, tending it to align along the field.

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Magnetic Dipole in Magnetic Field
Direction of Magnetic Dipole
(a) When magnet lies along the MF α = 0. Since sin α = 0, τ = 0. Thus
Torque is minimum.
(b) When magnet lies ⊥ to the direction of field α = 90◦, sin α = 1, τ = MB.

Definition for Magnetic Dipole Moment

If B = 1, α = 90◦, τ = M. Hence magnetic dipole moment may be defined
as the torque acting on a magnetic dipole placed to a uniform MF of unit
⊥
strength.
τ
M=
B sin α
SI unit
Nm
= = NmT −1 or JT −1 or Am2
A

Potential Energy of a Magnetic Dipole Moment in MF

When magnetic dipole is placed in uniform MF B⃗ at an angle α with it, it
experiences a torque
τ = MB sin α
If the dipole is rotated against the action of this torque, this work is stored
as potential energy of the dipole

dW = τdα = MB sin αdα

If the dipole is rotated from initial position α = α1 to the final position

α = α2, then the total work done will
be
∫ α2
α
W MB sin
Potential Energy of a Magnetic Dipole Moment
in MF (continued)

B⃗ total work done will be

When magnetic dipole is placed in uniform MF
at an angle α with it, the
W = MB [− cos α]α2
α

W = −MB [cos α2 − cos α1]

The work done is stored as potential energy U
U = −MB [cos α2 − cos α1]

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 U is zero when M⃗ B⃗ = 0, so potential energy of the dipole in the orientation
·
α can be obtained by putting α1 = 90◦, α2 = 0
U = −MB [cos 90◦ − cos α]

U = −MB cos α

· B⃗
−M⃗
U =

Note:

dipole is minimum when B⃗ is parallel to M⃗ . In this state, the magnetic

1. When α = 0, U = −MB cos α = −MB. Thus the potential energy of a

dipole is in stable equilibrium.

2. When α = 90◦, U = 0.

a dipole is maximum when B⃗ is antiparallel to M⃗ . In this state, the

3. When α = 180◦, U = −MB cos 180◦ = MB. Thus potential energy of

magnetic dipole is in unstable equilibrium.

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