Texas Annual Report 2009

Research
Results
2009
Annual
Report
Research and Technology
Implementation Office
Texas Department of Transportation
http://www.txdot.gov/txdot_library/publications/research.htm
About this
Book
This annual report presents research findings and recommendations extracted from the 114 technical research
reports published for TxDOT’s research program from September 1, 2008 through August 31, 2009. For any
specific project, other reports may still be pending completion, or may have been published in a previous fiscal
year.
How to use this book...

Hard Copy – See the Table of Contents for a list of the reports published for each Research Management
Committee (RMC). See page 6 for the focus areas under each RMC.
You may also scan the key words featured on each page to help locate reports of interest to you. A URL is
included under the title of each report to help you locate a full text version on-line.
PDF – This version is fully searchable, and interactive. Clicking on an entry in the Table of Contents will take
you to the summary of that report. Clicking on the URL on the summary page will take you to a full text version
of the report on-line.
Where to find additional reports...

For related reports published in previous fiscal years, search the on-line catalog for TxDOT’s research library at:
http://library.ctr.utexas.edu/dbtw-wpd/textbase/websearchcat.htm. TxDOT’s research library is operated by the
Center for Transportation Research at The University of Texas at Austin.
Table of
Contents
RMC Focus Areas ..................................................................................................................................6
RMC 1 Construction and Maintenance.........................................................................................7
0-1707-8 Review of TxDOT WWARP Aggregate Classification System....................................................8
0-4519-2 Consideration of Regional Variations in Climatic and Soil Conditions in the Modified
Triaxial Design Method ................................................................................................................9
0-4826-1 Best Practices for the use of Siliceous River Gravel in Concrete Paving.....................................10
0-4893-2 Concrete Pavement Overlays and Failure Mechanisms................................................................11
0-4893-4 Debonding in Bonded Concrete Overlays Over Continuously Reinforced Concrete
Pavements .....................................................................................................................................12
0-5106-2 Identification of Compliance Testing Method for Curing Effectiveness ......................................13
0-5135-3 Improving Lab Compaction Specifications for Flexible Bases Within TxDOT...........................14
0-5179-1 Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) Technology for Mitigation of Pavement Roughness...........................15
0-5223-2 Guidelines for Pulverization of Stabilized Bases..........................................................................16
0-5261-1 Application of Imaging Technology to Improve the Laboratory and Field Compaction
of HMA ......................................................................................................................................17
0-5261-2 A Method for Predicting Asphalt Mixture Compactability and its Influence on Mechanical
Properties ......................................................................................................................................18
0-5268-1 The Feasibility of Quantifying the Role of Course Aggregate Strength on Resistance to
Load in HMA ................................................................................................................................19
0-5268-3 Quantifying the Role of Coarse Aggregate Strength on Resistance to Load in HMA for
Blended Aggregates ......................................................................................................................20
0-5310-1 Development of a Scanner Laser System for Measuring Seal Coat Quality ................................21
0-5310-2 Feasibility Study of Scanning Laser Systems for Measuring Seal Coat Quality..........................21
0-5310-3 Evaluation of Seal Coat Performance Using Macrotexture Measurements..................................22
0-5430-1 Impact of Moisture Variation on Strength and Deformation of Clays..........................................23
0-5430-2 Expert System Design Guide for Lower Classification Roads Over High PI Clays ....................23
0-5444-2 Assessment and Rehabilitation Methods for Longitudinal Cracks and Joint Separations
in Concrete Pavement .................................................................................................................. 24
1
0-5445-2 Analysis of Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement Behavior Using Information
in the Rigid Pavement Database....................................................................................................25
0-5457-2 Development of the Crack Sealant Adhesion Test........................................................................26
0-5472-1 Analysis of Successful Flexible Pavement Sections in Texas – Including Development
of a Web Site and Database ...........................................................................................................27
0-5482-1 Literature Review on Concrete Pavement Overlays Over Existing Asphalt Pavement
Structures ......................................................................................................................................28
0-5482-2 Development of the Thickness Design for Concrete Pavement Overlays Over Existing
Asphalt Pavement Structures ........................................................................................................29
0-5496-1 Developing a Sustainable Flexible Pavement Database in Texas.................................................30
0-5513-1 First Year Progress Report on the Development of the Texas Flexible
Pavement Database .......................................................................................................................31
0-5540-1 Mitigating the Effects of Organics in Stabilized Soils: Technical Report ....................................32
0-5551-1 Deploying Weigh-in-Motion Installations on Asphalt Concretes .................................................33
0-5562-1 Guidelines for Using Local Materials for Roadway Base and Subbase .......................................34
0-5598-2 Design and Performance Evaluation of Very Thin Overlays in Texas..........................................35
0-5708-1 Improved Pavement Distress Rating System................................................................................36
0-5797-1 Design, Constructability Review and Performance of Dual Base Stabilizer
Applications ..................................................................................................................................37
0-5798-1 A Review of Performance Models and Test Procedures With
Recommendations for use in the Texas M-E Design Program......................................................38
0-5799-1 Synthesis of Workload Reduction Strategies for Construction Inspection ...................................39
0-5820-1 Using Cement Paste Rheology to Predict Concrete Mix Design Problems..................................40
0-5830-1 Optimized Design of Concrete Curb Under off Tracking loads .................................................. 41
0-5833-1 Synthesis Study on Transverse Variable Asphalt Application Rates for Seal Coats.....................42
0-5873-1 Develop a New Testing and Evaluation Protocol to Assess Flexbase Performance
Using Strength of Soil Binder.......................................................................................................43
0-6004-1 A Portable Profiler for Pavement Profile Measurements ..............................................................44
0-6009-1 Evaluation of Binder Aging and its Influence in Aging of Hot Mix Asphalt
Concrete: Literature Review and Experimental Design................................................................45
0-6011-1 Evaluation of Ways and Procedures to Reduce Construction Cost and
Increase Competition: Technical Report .......................................................................................46
0-6022-1 Recommendations for Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Bridge
Approach Slabs .............................................................................................................................47
0-6023-1 Synthesis on Construction Unit Cost Development: Technical Report ........................................48
0-6037-1 Subbase and Subgrade Performance Investigation for Concrete Pavement .................................49
0-6048-1 Characterization of the Swelling Properties of Highly Plastic Clays
Using Centrifuge Technology .......................................................................................................50
0-6386-1 Pavement Scores Synthesis...........................................................................................................51
2
RMC 2 Planning and Environment ................................................................................................53
0-4949-1 Successional Establishment, Mowing Response, and Erosion Control
Characteristics of Roadside Vegetation in Texas...........................................................................54
0-5217-1 Electronic Vehicle Identification: Applications and Implementation Considerations ..................55
0-5226-1 Evaluation of Texas Native Grasses for TxDOT Right of Ways ..................................................56
0-5345-2 GIS Models for Analyzing Intercity Commute Patterns: A Case Study of the
Austin-San Antonio Corridor in Texas..........................................................................................57
0-5392-2 Impacts of Demographic Trends on Transportation Planning ......................................................58
0-5453-2 Strategies for Improving Travel Time Reliability.........................................................................59
0-5475-2 Utility Accommodation and Conflict Tracker (UACT) Installation and Configuration
Manual .........................................................................................................................................60
0-5475-3 Utility Accommodation and Conflict Tracker (UACT) User Manual ..........................................60
0-5475-4 Development of a Utility Conflict Management System..............................................................61
0-5538-1 An Analysis of the Value of Texas Seaports in an Environment of Increasing
Global Trade..................................................................................................................................62
0-5541-1 Developing Sustainable Transportation Performance Measures if TxDOT
Strategic Plan: Technical Report ...................................................................................................63
0-5546-1 Protecting and Preserving Rail Corridors Against Encroachment of
Incompatible Uses .........................................................................................................................64
0-5667-1 An Examination of Land Use Models, Emphasizing UrbanSim, TELUM, and
Suitability Analysis .......................................................................................................................65
0-5668-1 Guidelines for Incorporating a Bus Rapid Transit Scenario into the Analysis of
Texas Highway Corridors .............................................................................................................66
0-5684-1 The Impacts of Port, Rail, and Border Drayage Activity in Texas ...............................................67
0-5686-1 Archiving, Sharing, and Quantifying Reliability of Traffic Data .................................................68
0-5696-1 Analysis and Integration of Spatial Data for Transportation Planning .........................................69
0-5788-1 Right of Way Real Property Asset Management – Prototype Data Architecture..........................70
0-5929-1 Understanding and Managing the Movements of Hazardous Material Shipments
Through Texas Population Centers ...............................................................................................71
0-5937-1 Potential Policies and Incentives to Encourage Movement of Containerized
Freight on Texas Inland Waterways ..............................................................................................72
0-5955-1 Characterization of In-Use Emissions from TxDOT’s Non-Road Equipment
Fleet-Phase I Report......................................................................................................................73
0-6034-1 Financing Tools for Rural and Small Urban Area Projects...........................................................74
3
RMC 4 Safety and Operations ..........................................................................................................75
0-4701-5 Evaluation of Traffic Control Devices: Fifth-Year Activities .......................................................76
0-4703-6 Incorporating Safety into the Highway Design Process: Fifth-Year Report.................................77
0-4986-1 An Assessment of Yield Treatment at Frontage Road-Exit Ramp and
Road-U-Turn Merge Areas............................................................................................................78
0-4986-2 Development of Frontage Road Yield Treatment Analysis Tool (FRYTAT)
Database Software.........................................................................................................................79
0-5089-1 Development of Measures to Improve Field Performance of Retroreflective
Raised Pavement Markers.............................................................................................................80
0-5210-4 Analysis of a Flexible Bridge Rail System for High-Speed Roadways........................................81
0-5210-6 NCHRP Report 350 Test 3-11 of the Modified T8 Bridge Rail....................................................82
0-5256-1 Use of Graphics and Symbols on Dynamic Message Signs: Technical Report............................83
0-5292-2 Operations-Oriented Performance Measures for Freeway Management Systems:
Final Report ..................................................................................................................................84
0-5294-1 Development of a Criteria and Guidelines for Installing, Operating, and Removing
TxDOT Ramp Control Signals .....................................................................................................85
0-5326-2 Traffic Control Strategies for Congested Freeways and Work Zones...........................................86
0-5470-1 Speeds in School Zones................................................................................................................87
0-5561-1 Studies to Improve the Management of Regulatory Speed Limits in Texas
Work Zones ...................................................................................................................................88
0-5577-1 Studies to Determine the Operational Effects of Shoulder and Centerline Rumble
Strips on Two-Lane Undivided Roadways ...................................................................................89
0-5629-1 Development of a Traffic Signal Operations Handbook...............................................................90
0-5656-1 Serviceable Pavement Marking Retroreflectivity Levels: Technical Report ................................91
0-5755-1 The Effects of On-Street Parking on Cyclist Route Choice and the Operational
Behavior of Cyclists and Motorists...............................................................................................92
0-5772-1 Driver Response to Delineation Treatments on Horizontal Curves on
Two-Lane Roads ...........................................................................................................................93
0-5774-1 Improvements to Video Imaging Detection for Dilemma Zone Protection..................................94
0-5840-1 Development of Left-Turn Operations Guidelines at Signalized Intersections............................95
0-5845-1 Alternative Vehicle Detection Technologies for Traffic Signal Systems:
Technical Report ...........................................................................................................................96
0-6035-1 Establishing Advisory Speeds on Non Directconnect Ramps: Technical Report.........................97
0-6076-1 Coordination and Safety Procedures for Mail Delivery on Roadways Without Shoulders ...........98
4
RMC 5 Structures and Hydraulics ..................................................................................................99
0-1401-1 Bending Fatigue Response of Grouted Stay Cables .....................................................................100
0-2116-3 Effects of Wet Mat Curing Time and Earlier Loading on Long-Term Durability
of Bridge Decks: Rapid Chloride Permeability Tests and Ponding Tests .....................................101
0-4586-4 Risk Assessment Model for Wind-Induced Fatigue Failure of Cantilever Traffic
Signal Structures ...........................................................................................................................102
0-4695-3 Design Guidance for Low-Water Crossings in Areas of Extreme Bed Mobility,
Edwards Plateau, Texas.................................................................................................................103
0-4875-1 Highway Drainage at Superelevation Transitions.........................................................................104
0-5134-2 Characterization of Self-Consolidating Concrete for Design of Precast,
Prestressed Bridge Girders............................................................................................................105
0-5197-3 Effects of Increasing the Allowable Compressive Stress at Release on the Shear
Strength of Prestressed Concrete Girders......................................................................................106
0-5197-4 Allowable Compressive Stress at Prestress Transfer ....................................................................107
0-5207-1 Effects of Texas Fly Ash on Air-Entrainment in Concrete: Comprehensive Report ....................108
0-5218-1 Investigation of the Internal Stresses Caused by Delayed Ettringite Formation in
Concrete ......................................................................................................................................109
0-5253-1 Strength and Serviceability Design of Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams...................................110
0-5367-1 Recommendations for the use of Precast Deck Panels at Expansion Joints .................................111
0-5492-1 Hydraulic Performance of Bridge Rails........................................................................................112
0-5492-2 Feasibility Report and Plan of Action for Development of a New Hydraulically
Efficient Bridge Rail .....................................................................................................................113
0-5521-1 Regression Equations for Estimation of Annual Peak-Streamflow Frequency for
Underdeveloped Watersheds in Texas Using an L-moment-Based PRESSMinimized
Residual-Adjusted Approach ........................................................................................................114
0-5521-2 Alternative Regression Equations for Estimation of Annual Peak-Streamflow
Frequency for Undeveloped Watersheds in Texas Using PRESS Minimization ..........................114
0-5530-1 Prediction of Embankment Settlement Over Soft Soils................................................................115
0-5822-1 Subdivision of Texas Watersheds for Hydraulic Modeling ..........................................................116
0-5824-1 Improved Correlation Between Texas Cone Penetrometer Blow Count and
Undrained Shear Strength of Soft Clays .......................................................................................117
0-5824-2 Characterization of Undrained Shear Strength Profiles for Soft Clays at Six Sites
in Texas ......................................................................................................................................118
0-5884-1 Handling Issues for Lead and Asbestos in Bridge Construction...................................................119
0-6100-2 Development of a Precast Bridge Deck Overhang System for the Rock Creek
Bridge ......................................................................................................................................120
0-6332-1 Phase I Report on the Development of Predictive Models for Bridge Deck
Cracking and Strength Development.............................................................................................121
5
Research Management Committee
Focus Areas
RMC 1 - Construction and Maintenance

• Construction Materials
• Construction Operations
RMC 2 - Planning and Environment
• Construction Contracting
• Aviation System Planning
• Maintenance Materials
• Environmental Affairs Management
• Maintenance Operations
• Hazardous Materials
• Maintenance Contracting
• Multi-modal & Inter-modal Freight
• Pavement Design
Planning
• Pavement Management
• Ports & Waterways Planning
• Vegetation Management
• Public Transportation
RMC 4 - Safety and Operations • Railway Planning
• Geometric Design • Right of Way Planning, Acquisition &
• Illumination Pavement Marking Management
• Railroad Crossing Safety • Roadway Planning
• Roadside Safety • Statewide, Regional & Local
• Roadway Signing & Delineation Transportation System Planning
• Traffic Control Devices • Traffic Data Collection
• Traffic Management & Operations
• Work Zone Safety
RMC 5 - Structures and Hydraulics
• Bridge Rails & Transitions
• Geotechnical Issues
• High Mast Illumination Poles
• Hydraulics & Hydrology
• Overhead Sign Bridges
• Structures Construction &
Maintenance
• Structures Design & Analysis
• Structures Management
• Structures Materials
6
Construction and
Maintenance
results
RMC 1
RMC 1 - Construction and Maintenance
Focus Areas
• Construction Materials
• Construction Operations
• Construction Contracting
• Maintenance Materials
• Maintenance Operations
• Maintenance Contracting
• Pavement Design
• Pavement Management
• Vegetation Management
RMC 1 7
Review of TxDOT WWARP Aggregate Classification System
0-1707-8 http://library.ctr.utexas.edu/pdf02/1707-8.pdf
Among the different test methods evaluated, the two test procedures that specifically address skid resistance
properties of pavement aggregates are the Polish Value test and the Acid Insoluble Residue (AIR) test. The
Micro-Deval test and the Magnesium Sulfate Soundness (MSS) test may relate to skid resistance behavior
indirectly because they have the capability to identify soft, absorptive materials that breakdown easily under
traffic loads and thus cause loss of pavement macrotexture. The evaluation of different test methods with respect
to repeatability showed that the Micro-Deval (MD) test was the most consistent among the four tests, followed
by the Polish Value test, and then the MSS test and finally the AIR test. The poor repeatability of the AIR test
is of special concern that deserves further study. This limitation in the AIR test may be overcome by either
performing multiple tests or by using a larger sample size.
The analysis of field skid data clearly showed that the synthetic aggregates, sandstones and igneous materials
consistently provided very good to excellent skid resistance. The gravel category was less consistent but
nevertheless provided good overall skid resistance performance. It is suspected that gravel sources with
significant amounts of carbonate material may have contributed to the variable performance seen in the gravel
category. Among all different aggregate categories, the limestones and the dolomite limestones showed the
greatest variability. In other words some limestones and dolomite limestones performed quite well while others
performed very poorly. Nearly all of the very poor performers were found to be in this category. Since a very
large fraction of the aggregate sources in Texas belong to this category, it is important to develop reliable
methods of classifying these borderline materials as satisfactory or unsatisfactory.
The lab-field correlations showed that it was relatively easy to identify those aggregates that provided very good
to excellent performance (i.e. terminal skid numbers (TSN) > 35). For example, all sources with an AIR of no
less than 80% provided terminal skid resistance of at least 35. These aggregates are also characterized by MD
losses of less than 8% or MSS losses of less than 5%. Among these three test methods the MSS test showed the
least capability to separate excellent/very good aggregate sources when used by itself. The residual Polish Value
test also showed better correlation near the high PV range than at the low PV range. None of the test methods
provided tight correlations with the actual field performance. More importantly, none of the test methods proved
to be effective in separating the poor performers from the satisfactory/good performers when used alone.
Combining two test methods (e.g. Residual PV and MSS) for the classification of aggregates appears to be a
more effective means of classifying aggregate sources into Very Good, Good, Fair and Poor categories. The
limited data set used in this study shows that the current WWARP aggregate classification has been generally
successful in accomplishing this goal. In other words, nearly all aggregates that demonstrated Excellent to Very
Good performance in the field were classified as Class A aggregates according to WWARP. Similarly, nearly all
aggregate sources that showed Good to Fair/Poor performance in the field classified as Class B aggregates.
One area in which the WWARP procedure appears to have a limitation is in identifying those aggregates that
show particularly weak performance. There were two sources that provided field TSN values of 26 and below.
However, these two sources classify as Class B aggregates. Interestingly, these two sources were the only two
sources that had MSS loss values larger than 25.0%.
The current test methods (Residual PV-MSS combination or Residual PV-MD combination) are effective in
separating the excellent/very good aggregates from others. However, they do not appear to be as effective in
separating low end aggregate sources into good/satisfactory and poor/
unsatisfactory categories. The limited data set evaluated suggests that Key Words:
the solution may be found by enforcing a stricter standard based on skid resistance, bituminous
MSS loss to separate Class B and Class C aggregates. aggregate, polish value, soundness,
micro-deval, acid insoluble residue
RMC 1 8
Consideration of Regional Variations in Climatic and Soil
0-4519-2 Conditions in the Modified Triaxial Design Method
http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/0-4519-2.pdf
Considering the findings from the investigations presented in this report, researchers offer the following
recommendations with respect to implementing the LoadGage program developed from this project:
The findings from field and laboratory tests conducted in this project verified the conservatism in the existing
design method that TxDOT engineers have previously recognized. For the near term, researchers recommend
that TxDOT consider dropping the load adjustment factor of 1.3 when using the existing design method to
check FPS pavement designs. If an analysis of wheel load stresses under tandem axles is needed, such an
analysis can be accomplished more realistically with the LoadGage program, which provides the capability for
specifying a tandem axle configuration in the analysis.
Given the conservatism observed in the existing design method, and the range in climatic and soil conditions
found across Texas, there will be applications where the engineer should use the more refined analysis offered
by the LoadGage program, even if simply to check the results from the existing triaxial design method.
The authors recommend an implementation project to provide a phased transition from the current triaxial
design check to the LoadGage program developed from this project. For implementation, researchers
recommend integrating LoadGage into TxDOT’s flexible pavement system program. The implementation
project should include a LoadGage training course to provide users with the necessary information to properly
use the program in practical applications. As implementation proceeds, pavement design engineers are
encouraged to run LoadGage side-by-side with the existing modified Key Words:
triaxial design method to assess the potential impact of implementing pavement design, modified triaxial
the program in their Districts. design method, environmental
effects, texas climatic-soil
regions, integrated climatic effects
model, Mohr-Coulomb failure
criterion, plate bearing test, load
bearing capacity, small-scale
pavement models
An Example of Data for Characterizing Climatic and Soil Variations

Across Texas: Variation in Daily Temperature Drops (°F) Across Texas
Counties (identified by Corresponding County Numbers on Map)
RMC 1 9
Best Practices for the use of Siliceous River Gravel in
0-4826-1 Concrete Paving
A special field study should be undertaken to validate the role of the noted aggregate characteristics and
weather conditions at the time of construction on the incidence of spalling. To the extent possible, each factor
should be checked against field performance to verify the influence on the incidence of spalling by surveying
several past projects where gravel was used as the coarse aggregate. This type of information should help to
further establish the viability of the guidelines to address the use of gravel to avoid spalling distress.
Verify that chipping along the transverse cracks of gravel projects is at a different level of severity than
delamination and spalling. Verification of the severity levels and dormancy of chipping over time should also be
included in this verification.
If the test sections constructed under this project perform well (monitoring of the sections is being done by
another research project), the validity of this process will still need to be verified. More case studies are needed
to calibrate the curve of probability of delamination occurrence as a function of effective wind speed, curing
quality, and construction practice (such as better curing practices and early-age sawcutting). The threshold
values for different levels of probability of delamination occurrence and the calibration of the curves need to be
established through detailed future research.
Relative to the guidelines, further efforts should be undertaken to streamline and validate the procedures and
methods as outlined in them to reduce the probability of delamination based both on historical and generated
data through implementation. This validation would focus on the effectiveness of select combinations of
materials and construction measures (improved curing, aggregate
blending, early saw cutting) and relative to the effects of wind speed, Key Words:
and related climatic factors. siliceous river gravel, concrete,
delamination, spalling, fracture
toughness, bond strength, interfacial
transition zones, design of
experiment, delamination prediction
and detection
Crushed Gravel Particles
Natural Gravel Particles
RMC 1 10
Concrete Pavement Overlays and Failure Mechanisms
0-4893-2 http://www.utexas.edu/research/ctr/pdf_reports/0_4893_2.pdf
Asphalt Concrete Overlay (ACO) appears to provide a viable option to extend the life of PCC pavement that is
in good structural condition and that needs functional enhancements such as improving ride or skid resistance.
All of the ACO sections evaluated in this study are in good condition. These sections also indicate that the
structural capacity of the concrete pavement underneath the ACOs was maintained to a good level. The
measured deflections in all pavement sections were within acceptable ranges, with no more than 9 mils
displacements for a normalized load of 9,000 lb. This implies that, if ACO is applied to PCC pavement that is in
reasonable structural condition, good performance of ACO can be achieved.
Deflections were not available for the concrete pavements before they were overlaid, so it is not feasible to
quantify the benefits of ACO on reducing pavement deflections. However, it is believed that thin ACO might not
provide the benefits of enhancing the structural capacity of the PCC pavement. Instead, ACO appears to provide
benefits of protecting concrete underneath from temperature and moisture variations, and potentially improving
ride and skid resistance.
Due to the small sample size, the effect of special materials used in the ACOs could not be quantified.
However, glass-grid mesh does not appear to provide as much benefit as other materials evaluated in this study,
such as Strata or Petromat.
Since all the distresses observed in Bonded Concrete Overlay (BCO) projects in Texas had debonding problems,
a field study was conducted to identify the mechanism of debonding. For this specific case study it was found
that the tension generated at the interface between the old concrete and the overlay was the dominant factor for
the failure of the bond. However, because of the complexity of the debonding mechanism and because only one
experimental design is not sufficient to draft definite conclusions, this topic will require further research.
The life cycle cost analysis of BCOs and ACOs is something that has not yet been fully studied. At this
time, it can be stated that in order to compare both rehabilitation strategies, it will be necessary to build some
experimental sections where all incurring costs could be monitored for a number of years and then compare
performances and B/C ratios of the alternatives. The information presented in this report could serve as a
starting point for that effort. Further efforts can be made to get full potential of the software described in this
report, RPLCCA.
Considering the mileage of PCC pavement in Texas that is approaching the end of its functional and structural
life, BCOs and ACOs could present the most cost-effective ways to extend the life of the existing PCC
pavement. Even though guidelines exist on when to use BCOs or ACOs in 1993 AASHTO Guide for Design of
Pavement Structure, they are quite general in nature and not specific enough to be useful to TxDOT staff. The
development of more detailed guidelines on when to use BCO and ACO will help TxDOT staff make rational
decision on the selection of the optimum overlay type. Currently, detailed information on structural condition
of continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) has been collected in TxDOT’s research project 0-5445,
“Project Level Performance Database for Rigid Pavements in Texas.” In that project, deflection information
has been collected for CRCPs with various slab thicknesses, and decent correlations obtained between average
deflections and slab thicknesses. The information can be used in
developing procedures to determine whether BCO or ACO is the Key Words:
optimum overlay type for a given CRCP. It is recommended that further delamination, debonding, bonding
efforts be made to develop comprehensive and detailed guidelines. concrete overlay (BCO), asphalt
concrete overlay (ACO), life cycle
cost analysis (LCCA)
RMC 1 11
Debonding in Bonded Concrete Overlays Over Continuously
0-4893-4 Reinforced Concrete Pavements
http://www.utexas.edu/research/ctr/pdf_reports/0_4893_4.pdf
Non-reflective cracks in the overlay will not propagate down into the existing CRCP slab, even in the absence
of debonding.
Prior to debonding initiation, the maximum interface stresses occur in the vicinity of the non-reflective crack,
with the stresses decreasing quickly as we move away from the discontinuity.
For the typical range of bond strength values, adverse environmental conditions may result in debonding
regardless of the combination of material and geometric properties of the BCO. However, under these
circumstances, tensile interface strengths in excess of 300 psi may inhibit debonding initiation.
In order to reduce the potential for debonding to a minimum, special attention should be paid to the preparation
of the existing slab surface, so as to ensure adequate bond strengths between the overlay and the substrate.
The use of aggregates for the overlay’s concrete that produce low moduli and thermal coefficient of expansion
should improve BCO performance by reducing debonding.
Debonding initiation was slightly delayed by increasing overlay thicknesses. However, for poor bond strength
conditions, the use of thicker overlays resulted in quite larger debonding lengths.
The existing slab thickness and the existing slab coefficient of thermal expansion had little effect on debonding.
A design tool for BCOs in the form of a computer program can be developed using the model presented herein.
Ideally, this tool could assist practitioners in the proper selection of design variables to ensure good early-age
behavior for the prevailing environmental conditions. There are, however, some limitations to address in the
developed finite element model. In the following paragraphs, some of the aspects of the model worthwhile
enhancing will be presented.
As it is, the developed model is too simplistic for practical application. A more accurate, predictive tool for this
type of analysis would consider a larger number of factors that affect the early age behavior of the overlay, and
include maturity models and temperature differential prediction models to more accurately predict concrete
material parameters and the temperature gradient at several critical times of the overlay’s early-age life. It is
highly recommended that additional efforts be made to finalize the model in this regard.
The validity of the bond slip relationship used in the development of the model has not been proven. Although
it has not been demonstrated, it is expected that the relationship defining the interaction between concrete and
reinforcing steel to have significant influence on the BCO behavior. It is, therefore, recommended that further
work be done in the determination of a more realistic bond slip relationship.
The ultimate normal slip value used to characterize the interface behavior was selected from literature and its
validity is yet to be proven. It is therefore recommended that further work be done in verifying the validity of
the assumed parameter value by calibrating it to in-service conditions.
Based on an evaluation of the results gathered for the reflective crack debonding model, it was concluded
that, for negative thermal differentials, horizontal cracking will presumably occur at the interface between the
overlay’s reinforcement and new concrete, instead of at the interface
between new and old concrete. It is therefore recommended that further Key Words:
research be conducted to gather data about this failure mode through delamination, debonding, bonding
both field and analytical studies. concrete overlay (BCO), asphalt
concrete overlay (ACO), life cycle
cost analysis (LCCA)
RMC 1 12
Identification of Compliance Testing Method for Curing
0-5106-2 Effectiveness
Because the probe of the Windsor probe system is relatively small, the penetration depth is significantly affected
by whether it hits coarse aggregate or mortar. The variations in penetration depth due to whether it hits coarse
aggregate or mortar could be more than those affected by curing effectiveness. Additionally, substantial error
could occur if the probe doesn’t penetrate perpendicularly to the surface of the concrete pavement.
Surface temperature may detect the difference in the loss of evaporation heat which is caused by varying
degrees of curing effectiveness. However, surface temperature also varies depending on weather conditions
during construction. It may not be feasible to evaluate the curing effectiveness solely based on surface
temperature.
The test on initial surface absorption is not simple and easy to implement due to the difficulty in sealing the
interface between the instrument and concrete surface.
Reflectance has a potential for the field compliance testing to identify the application rate of the curing
compound. However, it requires further advancements in this technique to make this approach feasible in the
field.
The technology for the measurement of internal relative humidity of early age concrete is still under progress
and various types of humidity sensors have been tried. In order to obtain the accurate RH in the fresh concrete,
there are still a lot of improvements to be made. It is considered that, at this point in time, measurement of RH
may not be a practical field compliance testing method for curing effectiveness.
Dielectric constant of concrete constantly changes in fresh concrete as water evaporates from the concrete.
The accuracy of dielectric constant measurement techniques currently available is not accurate enough to be
included in the specifications as compliance testing.
Based on the findings above, it is concluded that the methods evaluated in this research study are neither
practical nor accurate enough to be included in TxDOT specifications as a compliance testing.
One practical issue in the curing operation is to ensure that sufficient amounts of curing compounds are applied
uniformly. Currently, there is no good compliance testing available that enables TxDOT to accurately estimate
the application rate of the curing compound and its uniformity. It is difficult to keep track of how much curing
compound is applied. The rate of the curing compound application and its uniformity primarily depend on cart
speed, pump pressure, and nozzle spacing. Retrofit of a curing machine with hardware for speed and pressure
measurements may improve the current curing operation and eventually the curing effectiveness in concrete
pavement.
Key Words:
penetration resistance, initial surface
adsorption, surface temperature,
reflectance, relative humidity,
dielectric constant, curing-affected
zone
RMC 1 13
Improving Lab Compaction Specifications for Flexible Bases
0-5135-3 Within TxDOT
Based upon current results and the findings to improve the state-of-the-art with Tex-113-E compaction TxDOT
should:
• Implement the use of the slide hammer finishing tool in Tex-113-E.
• Continue separating out the plus 7/8-inch aggregate in Tex-113-E.
• Consider using the SCA (Soil Compaction Analysis) for establishing and monitoring proper operation of
automatic laboratory tampers.
Results in this project did not substantiate the need for an across-the-board shift to Modified compaction effort
for Texas flexible base materials.
Literature and results in this project indicate method of compaction largely contributes to differences between
lab- and field-compacted materials. Different techniques of compaction produce different soil fabric, which can
influence results. With flexible bases, lab vibratory compaction produced better triaxial classification, improved
moisture susceptibility rankings, higher modulus results at most moisture contents, and an improved permanent
deformation parameter μ. The most substantial differences existed in the rutting parameter μ.
To minimize the impacts of lab preparation on testing, results show that separating out the plus 7/8-inch
aggregate fraction during the Tex-113-E procedure does produce more repeatable dry densities among multiple
samples. To improve the correlation between the lab and the field, lab vibratory compaction may be warranted
during sample preparation to obtain reasonable results for certain tests, particularly the permanent deformation
test to obtain reasonable results for the μ parameter.
The focus of the final phases of this project became development and refinement of a method to measure the
compaction energy produced by TxDOT’s mechanical compactors. To accomplish this task, TTI developed a
system called the Soil Compactor Analyzer that among other things can measure the hammer drop height and
impact velocity. Using the determined impact velocity and the already-known hammer mass, the SCA calculates
the kinetic energy of the hammer at the point of impact. In addition to serving as a calibration tool, the SCA can
remain permanently installed on the compactor during sample production, which enables the lab to document
proper operation of the compactor for each sample produced.
Data collected in this project indicate that compaction effort could fall as low as 81 percent of Tex-113-E
specification effort and still achieve the peak density from the previously determined Tex-113-E moisture-density
curve. This observation should be tested by conducting further investigation into threshold values for applied
compaction effort, as Chapter 3 describes.
TxDOT should also consider using the SCA to validate proper operation of laboratory mechanical compactors
and then conduct a new interlaboratory study to develop new precision statistics for compaction effort, sample dry
density, and strength after Tex-117-E Part II.
Finally, TxDOT could consider further investigation into alternative lab compaction techniques such as vibratory
compaction for flexible bases. This may be particularly important if
TxDOT adopts mechanistic-empirical design approaches that include use Key Words:
of the VESYS rutting model. compaction, laboratory compaction,
vibratory compaction, Tex-113-E,
Modified Proctor
RMC 1 14
Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) Technology for Mitigation of
0-5179-1 Pavement Roughness
http://ctis.utep.edu/publications/Reports/DM_TxDOT_report_5179_Final_May15.pdf
Non-destructive testing techniques indicate that average stiffness of these areas is more when compared to those
from the untreated areas. The maximum soil movements and swell pressures recorded in both DSM treated and
untreated sections in the present research were tabulated. Vertical soil movements in composite DSM treated
areas showed considerably lesser values than those monitored in untreated soil sections. Lateral soil movements
recorded inside DSM columns are negligible and around the columns are considerably smaller than those
recorded in the untreated sections.
Reductions in surface and lateral subsoil movements in DSM treated sections were attributed to the
improvement achieved through the DSM technique, indicating effectiveness of DSM in minimizing the
expansive subsoil movements. Swell pressures recorded in treated sections are considerably lower than
those determined on untreated soils from laboratory tests. The maximum swell pressures (both lateral and
vertical) recorded at both treated sections are in the range of 1 to 4.5 psi indicating that treated sections can
be best characterized as those with very low swelling nature. Also, analytical model calculations based on the
composite section analysis yielded good agreement with field data.
DSM area treatments of low (25%) and medium (35%) ratios showed substantial potential in minimizing
subsoil movements and swell pressures. These improvements in expansive soil behavior will reduce distress to
the overlying pavements and thereby potentially decrease maintenance costs. A step by step procedure to design
DSM columns to mitigate expansive soil movements to targeted heave
Key Words:
values was developed for future usage.
deep soil mixing, expansive soils,
transverse cracking, longitudinal
cracking, pavements, cement, lime
Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) Operation and Extruded DSM Columns
RMC 1 15
Guidelines for Pulverization of Stabilized Bases
0-5223-2 http://ctis.utep.edu/publications/Reports/Report_0-5223-2%20Print%20Ready.pdf
Pulverization primarily changes coarse aggregates to fine sands. Most changes in gradation occur after the
first pass of the pulverizer. On average, 10% of coarse aggregates are crushed to fine sands.
Most change in gradation occurs at sites with coarse aggregates that are soft. A test called the Aggregate
Crushing Value can be used to assess the hardness of aggregates.
Add-rock of coarse gradation and high quality can be added to improve the final quality of the pulverized base.
Some upfront work is needed to ensure the site is a good candidate for FDR and that representative samples are
retrieved from the site for mix design. Pavement evaluation with the FWD and GPR and more rigorous means
of sampling the in-place material is recommended.
Mix design to estimate the type and concentration of additives should be carried out to ensure that adequate
strength, modulus and moisture-susceptibility are considered. Ways to accelerate the design process are
recommended. Increasing the additive content as a safety factor has many unintended consequences.
FDR projects require much more attention to quality control during construction as compared to traditional base
construction. Adhering to the target moisture content and stabilizer content of the base before compaction is the
key element to success of a FDR project.
Achieving adequate density does not guarantee a high quality base. The strength and stiffness of the material
should be monitored. Rapid methods for ensuring quality are recommended.
Opening to traffic, especially in late season construction, should be based on achieving adequate strength/
modulus of the FDR layer to minimize damage.
Modulus of the completed base is substantially lower than those obtained in the laboratory. The best estimate of
the field modulus can be obtained by measuring the laboratory strength/modulus after 24 hours of curing on a
counter top.
Full-depth reclamation for pavement rehabilitation is quite feasible and would result in tremendous cost
savings, provided that an appropriate mix design is carried out and the impact of the change in gradation due to
pulverization is considered. However, rigorous pavement evaluation before construction, a mix design to choose
the correct type and content of additive, and more rigid quality control
Key Words:
during construction are needed. The quality of the final results is highly
pulverization, stabilizers, strength,
dependent on good design and quality control during construction.
modulus, structural design
RMC 1 16
Application of Imaging Technology to Improve the Laboratory
0-5261-1 and Field Compaction of HMA
The uniformity of air void distribution is highly related to the compaction pattern and the sequence of using
different compaction equipment. More importantly, the efficiency of compaction (reducing air voids) at a point
was found to be a function of the location of this point with respect to the roller compactor width. The efficiency
of compaction at a point increases as the location of this point gets closer to the center of the roller.
The researchers proposed the Compaction Index (CI) to quantify the compaction effort at any point in the
pavement. This index is the summation of the multiplication of each pass with the effectiveness factor. The
compaction of longitudinal joints can be improved with an increase in the CI by overhanging the roller about
2.0 ft from the joint.
The slope of the compaction curve obtained from the Superpave gyratory compactor was found to correlate well
with the CI. Such a relationship can be used to evaluate the compactability of mixtures in the field based on
laboratory measurements.
The overlay test results clearly show that specimens prepared with uniform air void distribution have less
variation in the number of failure cycles.
The level of compaction affects the diffusion coefficients of HMA. Poor compaction or higher percent air voids
yield higher moisture diffusion coefficients. In addition, specimens compacted at lower air voids had better
moisture damage resistance.
The relationship between the slope of the laboratory compaction curve and the CI is useful to evaluate the field
compactability during the mixture design stage. Using this relationship a mixture can be improved by selecting
appropriate materials and mixture type, and achieve the desired air voids in the field. Uniform air voids across
the mat cannot be achieved by applying a uniform number of passes as the efficiency of compaction of a roller
is not uniform across its width. Rather, the compaction pattern should be set up to achieve a uniform CI. A
compaction roller equipped with a geographic information system (GIS) and a simple software program can
be used to monitor the CI across the mat. The operator can use this
information in order to adjust the compaction process such that a uniform Key Words:
CI and a uniform percent air voids across the mat are achieved. hot-mix asphalt, compaction,
effectiveness factor, uniformity,
X-ray CT
An Image of Air Void

Distribution (%) Along a
US 87 Test Section
X-ray Computed Tomography: X-ray CT is a nondestructive test

used to capture the internal structure of materials. This is the X-ray
CT System at Texas A&M University.
RMC 1 17
A Method for Predicting Asphalt Mixture Compactability and its
0-5261-2 Influence on Mechanical Properties
Evaluation of Field Compaction - The results of the three test sections evaluated in this part of the project
agreed with the findings from report 0-5261-1. The air void distribution correlated well with the compaction
effort across the mat. The compaction effort was found to be a function of the number of roller passes and the
location of each pass across the mat. Therefore, a new index referred to as the Compaction Index is proposed to
quantify the compaction effort at any point in the pavement. This index is the summation of the multiplication
of each pass with an effectiveness factor. The effectiveness factor at a point is a function of the location of the
point with respect to the roller width. A point on the mat closer to the center of the roller is subjected to more
effective compaction than a point closer to the edge of the roller.
The CI is used to study the compactability of asphalt mixtures in the field. The CI correlated well with the slope
of the laboratory compaction curves. Asphalt mixtures with a higher slope in the laboratory needed less CI in
the field to achieve the same percent air void. It is demonstrated that the CI is useful to set up the compaction
pattern to achieve uniform percent air voids. A more uniform CI corresponds to more uniform air voids across
the mat. In most of the test sections, it was found that the middle part (across the depth) of the mat is more
compacted than the top and bottom parts.
Fracture Analysis of Moisture Damage - The resistance of asphalt mixtures with different percent air voids
to moisture damage was evaluated by using a fracture mechanics approach in which a crack growth index
was used to quantify the damage of the test specimens. The analysis approach confirmed that the dry samples
performed better than the wet ones at each percent air voids. The test specimens with less percent air voids
performed better than the ones with higher percent air voids. The detrimental effect of moisture was the lowest
at 7 percent air voids compared with 4 and 10 percent air voids specimens.
Discrete Element Models of Mechanical Properties - The effect of air void on the mechanical properties of
asphalt mixtures was investigated using discrete element models. The performance of asphalt mixtures was
simulated using both 2D and 3D DEM. For a given air void orientation, test specimens with less percent air
voids have a higher modulus compared to specimens at higher percent air voids. For a given air void level, the
3D model yield higher stiffness for a given microstructure than 2D models.
Based on the findings of this study the researchers recommend: 1) verifying the relationship between laboratory
compaction data and field compaction by compacting more mixtures under different site and climatic
conditions. This additional effort will also validate the effectiveness factors distribution and compaction
index concept, 2) developing a setup that can be used in the compaction equipment to monitor and record the
position of the roller with respect to the mat and the number of passes across the different points in the mat.
This data can be used to plot the Compaction Index across the mat. The equipment operator can then adjust
the compaction pattern to achieve a uniform CI and consequently a
uniform distribution of air voids, and 3) evaluating the effect of different Key Words:
compaction rollers and operational characteristics on the values of the hot-mix asphalt, compaction,
compaction index, and making adjustments if needed. effectiveness factor, uniformity,
X-ray CT, HMA moisture
susceptibility, DEM
RMC 1 18
The Feasibility of Quantifying the Role of Course Aggregate
0-5268-1 Strength on Resistance to Load in HMA
http://library.ctr.utexas.edu/pdf/5268-1.pdf
Aggregates in this study were ranked according to their performance, when subjected to numerous
characterization test methods, and based on three categories of tests (aggregate properties, rock properties, and
shape and texture).
Aggregate Properties - hard limestone ranked as the best, granite the second best, and soft limestone the worst.
Rock properties - hard limestone and granite ranked similarly (hard limestone being slightly better) and soft
limestone ranked the worst.
Shape and Texture - granite ranked higher than hard limestone, with soft limestone being the worst.
In general, from the 23 tests that were carried out on the aggregates and rock samples, the hard limestone ranked
the best followed by the granite ranked second best and the soft limestone ranking the worst.
Correlation analysis amongst the tests was performed.

Tests characterizing the aggregate point and bulk strength results - the ACV test and its surrogate parameters
were found to correlate well with most of the tests. As a result, the ACV test seems to be the most appropriate
test for characterizing the aggregates, especially since several parameters can be readily determined from the
same test and the cost of implementing this test in districts owning a concrete compressive test machine would
be insignificant.
The compressive strength obtained using the Schmidt hammer - seems to be the most appropriate test for
characterizing this parameter. This test is not only easier and faster than the compressive strength test, but also
eliminates the need for coring the rock and requires minimal training.
The V-meter - seems to be a great tool for estimating the modulus as well as the quality of the aggregates in
tension. In addition, no coring is necessary to perform this test on the rock samples. Therefore, the V-meter is
recommended over the FFRC.
For the performance characterization of the mixtures - the indirect tensile test and the modulus with the V-meter
test seem to be the two test methods that best provide information about the strength and stiffness of the HMA.
An approach for modeling the response of HMA bituminous was developed in this study. The model can be
used to predict the mix response under different loading conditions. The results show that the failure in soft
limestone mixes occurs primarily within the aggregate phase, while the failure in the mixes with the other two
aggregates occurs in the mastic phase. The model was used to investigate the stress or load distributions within
the different mixes. The PFC mixes are shown to have more localized high stresses within the aggregates than
the Superpave and CMHB mixes. This finding indicates that aggregates with higher resistance to fracture need
to be used in PFC mixes. The current model uses average aggregate properties. We are currently working on
modifying the model to include the distribution of aggregate properties, which will provide more realistic
representation of the mix behavior.
In general, the tests proposed on aggregates and rock specimens are rather simple, for the most part low-cost,
and simple to perform.
It should be emphasized that these observations are preliminary since the database is rather small. As a result,
it is proposed to further study these tests in the second phase where
more materials will be tested. Phase II of this project will contain a more Key Words:
comprehensive database that can be used for drawing more concrete aggregate interaction, aggregate
conclusions. gradation, new-generation HMA,
micromechanical models
RMC 1 19
Quantifying the Role of Coarse Aggregate Strength on
0-5268-3 Resistance to Load in HMA for Blended Aggregates
http://ctis.utep.edu/publications/Reports/18TX-0-5268-3%20Research%20Report%20
Final%20June%202009.pdf
The ACV test seems to be the most appropriate test for characterizing aggregates, especially since several
parameters can be readily determined from the same test and the cost of implementing this test in districts
owning a concrete compressive test machine would be insignificant. The AIV test was also proven to be useful
for this purpose.
One of the requirements of the project was to extend the quality control of aggregates to quarry rock masses
before crushing. Both tensile and compressive strengths of the quarry rock mass seem to contribute to the
quality of the aggregates. The compressive strength obtained using the Schmidt hammer seems to be appropriate
for characterizing the rock mass. This test is easier and faster than the compressive strength test, it eliminates
the need for coring the rock, and it requires minimal training. Even though the Schmidt hammer test protocol
(Tex-446-A) is developed for concrete, the process is quite reliable for rock masses as well.
The V-meter seems to be an appropriate tool for estimating the modulus as well as the quality of the aggregates
in tension. These tests can be carried out either on rock cores extracted from the quarry rock mass or
alternatively can be performed on the rock mass with smooth faces.
The traditional tests showed that the Los Angeles Abrasion test, Mg Soundness test, the Micro-Deval test, and
AIMS angularity after Micro-Deval are appropriate.
Considering experimental errors, a linear trend seems to match the change in the performance of the mixes with
the increase in the percentage of softer materials. Therefore, one conclusion is that if the results based on any
of the performance indicators are known for the 100% blends of soft and hard aggregates, then the performance
indicators at any blending ratio can be estimated reasonably well.
The AIV and ACV seem to increase as the percent of soft material increases. This shows that as the percent
of soft material increases, the material becomes more susceptible to crushing. The results also support the
recommendation based on the results of the individual aggregates.
The results indicate that the asphalt content is a function of the quality of aggregate in the mix. As the
percentage of lower quality (and perhaps more absorbent) aggregates increases, the asphalt demand increases.
This matter should be factored into the decision on blending of aggregates.
Performance tests such as the IDT which measures strength, dynamic modulus and V-meter which are measures
of modulus, and HWTD which measures rutting potential all seem to indicate that aggregate gradation plays a
part in blending. In mixes where the gradation is coarse, such as the open-and gap-graded mixes, the aggregate
hardness is reflected in the strength of the mix. When blending aggregates with similar hardness, the strength
of the mix does not vary as compared to blending a soft with a hard aggregate. When the hardness of the two
blends varies, the strength of the mix varies as well.
In the dense graded mixes, Superpave-C and Type-D, the strength of the mix does not seem to be as sensitive to
the hardness of the aggregates, but it is sensitive to the blending ratios.
The DEM analyses, in general, validates the results of the indirect tensile strength tests performed
experimentally. The variation in tensile strength with change in blending is small for most mixes. The DEM
results are more sensitive to the blending ratios as compared to the experimental results.
Based on the indirect tensile test results as a performance indicator, the PFC and CMHB-C mixtures can
accommodate about 40% of soft aggregates without decreasing strength.
This percentage could vary depending on aggregate strength but it is the Key Words:
minimum value that was obtained from the analysis conducted in this aggregate interaction, aggregate
study. There is almost no benefit of blending 30% or less of the hard gradation, hot mix asphalt,
aggregates. micromechanical models, blending
RMC 1 20
Development of a Scanning Laser System for Measuring Seal
0-5310-1 Coat Quality
http://library.ctr.utexas.edu/pdf02/5310-1.pdf
The 3-D laser scanning system, based on auto-synchronized scanning, was developed for seal coat quality
evaluation. To achieve high-speed measurement, a PSD (Position Sensitive Detector) was used in the prototype
system instead of a CCD (Charge Couple Device), which is usually used in the common imaging system.
Compared to the previous mechanical scanning device, which gives two scan lines per second, the new system
is more suitable for highway speed measurement. The system has been tested in a Lab, and the results show
that this device has a resolution higher than 1 millimeter with very good repeatability. The three sample testing
results clearly showed the profile features of flushed, bare, and medium asphalt pavements. By proper signal
processing, the seal coat features can be quantitatively described.
It is recommended that software should be developed to convert the Key Words:

scanning laser’s arch-shaped waveform to match the real flat pavement MEMS technology,
surface. The laser device structure should be redesigned to prevent laser nanotechnology, transportation
leakage. Field testing should be conducted and criterion established engineering, sensor application,
concerning seal coat quality factors. wireless sensor network, smart
material
Feasibility Study of Scanning Laser Systems for Measuring Seal

0-5310-2 Coat Quality
Non-contact, high speed devices based on laser technology are feasible to evaluate sealcoat quality at highway
speeds.
Both the point laser and scanning laser are useful for obtaining raw sealcoat quality information. However, the
point laser system has higher accuracy than the scanning laser system.
Key Words:
Mean profile depth (MPD) can be used as an indicator of sealcoat quality.
MPD, ASTM standard, normal,
flushing, shelled, criteria.
Installation of the Scanning Laser Device and a test Sample Field Testing the Point Laser with its MPD Calculation
Software
RMC 1 21
Evaluation of Seal Coat Performance Using Macrotexture
0-5310-3 Measurements
The literature survey showed that seal coats applied early in the summer seemed to perform better than those
applied at the end of the summer. This is because seal coats applied early in the summer are given more time to
cure before being subject to the low temperatures of the winter season. It is then recommended that seal coating
is done early in the summer season. This could be achieved by awarding seal coat contracts accordingly.
Other road work like patching, crack sealing, and stripping should also be completed as far in advance of the
seal coat as possible in order to allow maximum curing time for those other types of work. It is recommended
that this type of work is performed the year before seal coating. Studies have shown that patches and crack
sealing are common causes of bleeding due to localized increase of asphalt over the sealed cracks and patches.
The use of warranties are the main difference between seal coat contracts in the United States and that of
other countries like Canada and New Zealand, which have already implemented warranties in their seal coat
programs. A similar type of contract could be implemented in The United States by state agencies like the Texas
Department of Transportation in order to ensure seal coat quality after the work is completed and the new seal
coat has been in service for a period of time. This will require that contractors provide a written warranty of
their seal coat work. Implementing warranties may help TxDOT save money by providing a mechanism that
requires the contractor to repair failures that are a consequence of poor materials or labor. Warranties will also
encourage contractors to provide a better finished product. Research has shown that there has not been any
significant increase in bid prices to reflect the use of warranties in seal coat contracts. Research also shows that
seal coat lasts twice as long in countries that implemented warranties in their seal coat contracts.
Results showed an inability to determine the exact rate of binder and aggregate applied at a failed seal coat
section. It is recommended that a study of seal coat construction record keeping and performance monitoring is
implemented. Performance could then be measured using the MPD criteria.
The importance of the roller in achieving aggregate embedment is not well understood. It is recommended
that a study of seal coat rolling practice be conducted. Optimum size and weight of the roller should also be
investigated.
MPD is an effective indicator to measure seal coat quality. Results showed a good correlation between the
outflow meter and the circular track meter. This indicates that the outflow meter could be used by a Texas
Department of Transportation inspector as a portable and inexpensive device to measure seal coat quality.
The outflow meter could be used to determine if the seal coat has failed using the recommended thresholds
determined by this research.
A threshold for seal coat failure was obtained from this research. A failed seal coat cold be defined as one with
a MPD of 0.46 mm or less or an equivalent outflow time of 14.5 seconds or greater. A seal coat also reaches
failure at a cumulative traffic of 14X106 vehicles.
Unfortunately, the traffic data available for this study did not include growth rates, traffic classification, and axle
loads. It is strongly recommended that the preliminary curve in terms of texture developed by this research be
updated using a carefully designed factorial that would include detailed traffic characterization and the influence
of traffic on seal coat performance as measured by macrotexture.
Key Words:
seal coat, pavement texture, safety
RMC 1 22
Impact of Moisture Variation on Strength and Deformation of
0-5430-1 Clays
http://ctis.utep.edu/publications/Reports/TX_Report_0-5430-1Final.pdf
To understand the behavior of the high PI clays with changing moisture content, a number of laboratory tests
were carried out on six clay materials, consisting of five high PI clays and one low PI clay. The High PI clays
were brought from Bryan, Paris, San Antonio, Fort Worth and Houston districts while the low PI clay was from
El Paso. Several different laboratory techniques to compact clay specimens were evaluated. Static compaction
in one lift was found to be the most practical procedure.
The variations in modulus and shrinkage/expansion strains with moisture under a number of different moisture
conditioning procedures were evaluated. The moisture conditioning procedures used were a) drying the
specimens from the optimum moisture content (DFO), b) saturating the specimens from the optimum moisture
content (SFO), and c) drying after saturating the specimen prepared at the optimum moisture content (DFS).
For each moisture conditioning process, models were developed to estimate the variations in the modulus and
shrinkage/expansion strains with moisture. Finally the fit parameters of those models were correlated to the
index properties of the clays so that they can be readily used in practice. The significance of these models is that
for the first time, the moduli and shrinkage strains are related to moisture content (as opposed to suction) which
can be measured with ease.
Key Words:
The developed models in this research project were implemented in the high PI clay, shrinkage strain,
assessment of the pavement performance in Research Report 5430-2. expansion strain, moisture content,
longitudinal cracking, moisture
variation, swelling
Expert System Design Guide for Lower Classification Roads

0-5430-2 Over High PI Clays
http://ctis.utep.edu/publications/Reports/19TX-0-5430-2%20final.pdf
The most effective way to minimize the premature failure of low-volume roads is to characterize and strengthen
the subgrade layer instead of placing thicker pavement layers.
Based on laboratory testing, multiple mathematical relationships were developed to predict the shrinkage
strains, modulus and strength of clayey subgrades at particular moisture content from index properties
(Atterberg Limits and moisture-density properties) of the clay.
For the first time, the potential for longitudinal cracking, the most prevailing mode of failure of low-volume
pavements built on expansive clays, can be conveniently checked using a model incorporated in ExSPRS.
The engineering and cost-benefit of strengthening the pavements to ensure longer life for low-volume roads are
compiled in one place so engineers can make more informed decisions.
Low-volume roads are more susceptible to heavy loads, environmental conditions, and subgrade soil properties
than typical highways. A new tool is available to the districts to optimize the design of their low-volume roads.
The program compiles the knowledge of experts with analytical models in an expert system shell. Therefore, the
new program is not only useful to experienced designers, but can also be used by less experienced engineers as
a source of information.
Key Words:
The main lesson learned from this study is that placing thicker pavement pavement design, high PI clay,
layers is not the best solution to improve the overall performance of longitudinal cracking, remediation
low-volume roads. Rather, ways to minimize the variations in the strategies, cost-benefit analysis,
properties or moisture of the subgrade play a more important role. expert system
RMC 1 23
Assessment and Rehabilitation Methods for Longitudinal
0-5444-2 Cracks and Joint Separations in Concrete Pavement
Longitudinal cracking in JCP is most often caused by shallow and possible late saw cutting of longitudinal
warping joints.
Longitudinal joint separations are caused by corrosion of tie bars in conjunction with dynamic traffic loading.
Longitudinal cracks should be repaired as soon as possible after identification to prevent further deterioration
and separation. Repairing the cracks early saves money in the long term.
Cross stitching should be used to repair cracks/separations that are fairly tight. For wider cracks/separations slot
stitching should be used.
Slot stitching is the most economical repair method for restoring load transfer, preventing separations, and
improving performance of longitudinal joints and wide cracks.
Corrosion and shear were found in association with tie bar failures, therefore #6 bars should be used instead of
the specified #4 bars.
In this study, there was no direct correlation found between DCP readings and the likelihood of longitudinal
cracking or joint separations. But when lower modulus values were found, the possibility of problems with
longitudinal cracking and joint separations was greater.
Voids were found under faulted slabs. An underseal should be inserted into the voids to re-establish uniform
support for the slabs.
When taking LTE readings, the deflections associated with the LTE test locations need to be known to determine
the condition of the pavement. A high or low LTE reading can be misleading; a high LTE reading does not
necessarily mean the pavement is in good condition. However high measured deflections always means
the slabs have low LTE.
Key Words:
longitudinal, cracks, joint
separation, pavements
Cross Stitching Distress on US 59
RMC 1 24
Analysis of Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
0-5445-2 Behavior Using Information in the Rigid Pavement Database
This report presents the findings from (1) two test sections constructed to investigate microscopic crack width
behavior of CRCP, (2) several distress types observed in CRCP in Texas, and (3) example analyses conducted
on the information collected in a test section in the Amarillo District. The following summarizes the project
findings:
Transverse crack width decreases over time, which is contrary to what’s been accepted as a general crack width
behavior in CRCP. The reason for this decrease is not known.
Concrete temperature has a dominant effect on the crack width behavior. Most of the time, CRCP slabs exhibit
flexural behavior at the cracks due to temperature variations. The neutral axis for crack width variations appears
to exist below the mid-depth.
Two major structural distress types were observed in CRCP: horizontal cracking-induced distress and edge
punchouts. The mechanism of horizontal cracking appears to be curling of the concrete slab, caused by large
temperature changes in the upper portion of the concrete slab. A large coefficient of thermal expansion of
concrete, modulus of elasticity, and temperature variations appear to be causing this distress.
Neither transverse crack spacing nor concrete temperature appears to have substantial effects on load transfer
efficiency in CRCP. The insensitivity of LTE to temperature is different from the behavior of JCP. In JCP, LTE
at a transverse joint is quite sensitive to concrete temperatures. Crack widths get larger with lower temperatures,
which should result in lower LTEs. However, field evaluations indicate almost constant LTEs evaluated in the
summer and in the winter.
Transverse crack spacing does not appear to have substantial effects on slab deflections.
Based on the findings in this study, the following recommendations are made:
Load transfer efficiency, in the current form, doesn’t appear to be a good indicator for structural condition of
CRCP. Efforts should be made to improve the formulations or develop other evaluation forms.
Efforts should be made to clarify the effects of transverse crack spacing on Key Words:
CRCP performance. Contradicting statements have been made regarding what crack width, load transfer
should be the desirable crack spacing. efficiency, CRCP distress
Slab Segment Showing Horizontal Cracking at

the Mid-Depth, Longitudinal Cracking Above
Longitudinal Steel, and Sound Concrete at the
Bottom Half
RMC 1 25
Development of the Crack Sealant Adhesion Test
0-5457-2 http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/0-5457-2.pdf
The Overlay Tester based crack sealant adhesion tester and associated test protocol were developed. As part of
the test protocol, guidelines were developed for specimen preparation, test conditioning, and data interpretation.
A total of 13 sealants have been evaluated using the proposed sealant adhesion test. The proposed test
equipment and protocol were found to easily distinguish the poor adhesion sealants from the good ones.
As part of this study researchers compared TxDOT current crack sealants with several new sealants proposed
by sealant vendors. Many of the new sealants were found to have significantly better performance in the new
adhesion test.
The draft crack sealant special specification was proposed. Significantly different from the current crumb rubber
content based specification, the new special specification is intended to be performance based; primarily on the
performance in the crack sealant adhesion test. Meanwhile, other factors such as flash point, softening point,
and viscosity are also considered. In the new special specification, the sealants are classified as below.
Type A: min. 100 cycles to failure at 45 ºF
Type B: min. 400 cycles to failure at 45 ºF
Type C: min. 400 cycles to failure at 33 ºF
Extensive studies were conducted to determine the sensitivity of the test results to test temperature. The sealants
were found to be very sensitive to test temperature. Based on these results tentative recommendations were
made on sealant type selection for each TxDOT district.
Finally, an experimental test plan was developed to validate the drafted crack sealant special specification.
Significant progress has been made in laboratory evaluation of the crack sealant adhesion failure and a draft
crack sealant special specification has been proposed. The researchers strongly recommend that the findings
from this research project eventually be implemented statewide; in the short term it is proposed that TxDOT
construct experimental test sections in four districts to validate and/or refine
the draft crack sealant special specification. Also, each district is encouraged Key Words:
to try the new sealants recommended from this study. crack sealant, Overlay Tester,
adhesive failure
Crack Sealant Clamp and Clamped Test Specimen
RMC 1 26
Analysis of Successful Flexible Pavement Sections in Texas
0-5472-1 – Including Development of a Web Site and Database
A web site was developed that allows online nomination of additional pavements. The web site also features
several web site administration tools to facilitate ongoing web site management by TxDOT.
While the success of each pavement appears to have somewhat differing factors involved, in general, superior
performance may be attributed to the combined result of good construction practice, high-quality materials, and
timely maintenance. Analysis of PMIS data from 25 pavement sections reflects superior pavement performance
over time. Average condition scores, distress scores, and ride scores from data available from 1998 through
2006 indicate very good performance and substantiate the selections of these pavements by the districts.
GPR colormaps display uniform pavement profiles for the selected pavements, an indication of uniformity
in materials production, materials quality, and use of good pavement construction practices. Colormaps are
consistent with observations of layer depths and occasional anomalies made in the field during pavement
sampling.
Most pavement layer back-calculated modulus values were within or above the range of expected typical values
for the types of materials involved. Current record retention policies for construction inspection test results
severely limited availability of construction inspection test results for pavements older than six or seven years
in age. However, potentially valuable observations were made regarding test results and specification criteria
that warrant further evaluation. Additional quantities of construction inspection test results will be required
to adequately evaluate these specification improvement opportunities. Recommendations concerning these
observations are included below.
Availability of the Texas Successful Flexible Pavements web site and database should be advertised to all
potential department users to gain immediate and maximum benefit from the information now available. District
pavement engineers should be provided security access and be encouraged to nominate additional flexible
pavements that they find to be clearly performing beyond normal expectations. Once a number of additional
pavements have been included in the database, TxDOT should consider more closely evaluating benefits and
other possible effects from a small increase in the laboratory design density for pavement layers below the
surface course.
The voids-in-the-mineral-aggregate criteria in current specifications should be evaluated specifically to validate

the current specification criteria or to support increased minimum values.
Implementing a sister web site and database, using the same basic web site and database structure developed in
this project, should be considered for the sole purpose of capturing and tracking information about experimental
pavement sections placed under construction and maintenance oversight. Similarly, implementing a sister web
site and database solely for collecting information about Superpave, SMA, and CMHB mixtures should be
considered to expedite department ability to evaluate current specification criteria unique to these mixtures and
to increase general understanding of these pavement types.
Key Words:
Current record retention policies for construction inspection test result records asphalt concrete, successful
should be reviewed to determine if adjustments might be practical that would flexible pavement
facilitate future review of important construction specification criteria. performance, surface
treatment, stone-matrix
asphalt, coarse-matrix high-
binder, Superpave,
dense-graded hot mix, flexible
base, forensic
RMC 1 27
Literature Review on Concrete Pavement Overlays Over Existing
0-5482-1 Asphalt Pavement Structures
The performance of several thin whitetopping (TWT) projects shows some variation in distress type and distress
level. In some projects, severe corner cracking was developed under the wheel paths on the driving lane. In
other projects, cracking in the panels on the driving lane near the shoulder was more pronounced. Reflective and
load related cracking was common on all projects. However, most projects provided over 5 years of satisfactory
service before reconstruction was required.
Performance of the test sections in the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT) shows that joint
spacing has a significant effect on performance. Corner cracking appears to be the primary failure mode, and
fatigue cracking is believed to be the primary cracking mechanism. Analysis also shows that bonding is an
important factor to the long-term performance of whitetopping.
Ultrathin whitetopping provides small joint spacing to minimize stresses from wheel load applications as well
as temperature and moisture variations. However, joint locations relative to wheel load applications should be
given significant consideration. In stress-reduction mechanism by bonding, debonding between concrete and
asphalt layers always occurred near panel edges or cracks. The bond at the center of panels was found to be
intact.
Based on the field evaluations, partially bonded systems should be assumed in whitetopping design procedures.
Otherwise, the procedure might under-predict the stresses and the performance of the whitetopping might be
compromised. It is recommended that joint spacing for thin whitetopping pavement be 6 feet in both directions.
As for the load transfer at the joints, dowel bars at the transverse contraction joints are not critical for the
performance based on the Colorado thin whitetopping test sections. However, long-term monitoring is needed to
determine the effect of load transfer devices.
The review of existing design procedures for whitetopping indicates that there is a need for improvements,
especially the wheel load stress levels in slabs with different joint spacing.
Also to be included are the effects of environmental loading, such as zero- Key Words:
stress temperatures and subsequent temperature and moisture variations. white topping, pavement
performance, pavement
rehabilitation
Corner Cracked Areas Beginning to

Punch Out in a Test Cell
RMC 1 28
Development of the Thickness Design for Concrete Pavement
0-5482-2 Overlays Over Existing Asphalt Pavement Structures
The performance of several TWT projects in other states showed some variations in distress types and levels. In
some projects, severe corner cracking developed under the wheel paths on the driving lane when the joints were
under the wheel paths. In other projects, cracking in the panels on the driving lane near the shoulder was more
pronounced. Reflective and load related cracking was common on all projects.
The joint spacing has a significant effect on performance as improperly selected joint spacing puts joints directly
under the wheel path, causing corner cracking. Corner cracking appears to be the primary failure mode, and
fatigue cracking is believed to be the primary cracking mechanism.
All test panels in full-scale field testing reached fatigue failure under the edge loading configuration using the
SDD. During fatigue loading, cracks formed at the bottom of loading points first, and propagated to the top
surface. The field slabs showed a stress redistribution phenomenon during the crack propagation period. The
S-N curve from this study is very close to Thompson and Barenburg’s S-N curve after the application of the
equivalent fatigue life concept.
The proposed design equation generally produces a little more conservative pavement structures than the current
TxDOT design calls for. The current TxDOT design method for TWT does not account for the condition of the
existing hot mix asphalt pavement. Rather, the slab thickness is determined solely by the future truck traffic.
In addition, the current TxDOT design method for TWT requires truck traffic as input while the Transportation
Planning and Programming Division (TPP) provides traffic information in terms of equivalent single-axle load
(ESAL). The proposed design equation is more realistic in that it accounts for all the design variables including
layer characteristics. It also utilizes ESAL as traffic input. Therefore, the proposed design procedures will
provide TxDOT engineers with a more accurate and convenient design tool.
Since several factors of existing asphalt pavement have substantial effects on required TWT thickness, it is
recommended that the condition of existing asphalt pavement be evaluated with the falling weight deflectometer
(FWD) and/or the dynamic cone penetration (DCP) test and the results be incorporated in TWT design.
The design procedures developed in this study for thin whitetopping design Key Words:
can be implemented in TxDOT. whitetopping, pavement
performance, fatigue, design,
pavement rehabilitation
Patched Corner Crack Areas Near Outside Wheelpath of Test

Cell
RMC 1 29
Developing a Sustainable Flexible Pavement Database in Texas
The web-based application is capable of performing a series of statistical analyses that are used to investigate
the relative roughness, rutting, and cracking performance of various HMA mixtures, under varying conditions
with respect to climate, traffic, pavement facility (structure), and amount of maintenance applied.
While, in general, the analysis results do positively indicate trends that are expected, others are unrealistic - the
roughness measurements provided more realistic results compared to the cracking and rutting measurements.
The incorporation of SiteManager allowed a better identification of project location and extents, which
addressed the shortcomings of using DCIS. As expected, this resulted in reduced errors associated with the
analyses presented. Thus, while the reported analyses highlighted the potential benefits of a network-level
analysis to track the performance of HMA in Texas it also indicated some limitations with respect to the use of
PMIS data, notably the insensitivity of the performance variables to PMIS rutting severity groupings and the
subjective nature of PMIS visual assessments of cracking.
The statistical analysis procedure in the application can currently be used to investigate and compare the relative
performance of HMA mixtures with respect to a number of influence factors such as climate, traffic, facility
type, and HMA material properties. There is potential to improve the analysis procedure by incorporating
additional influence factors and including cost-benefit calculations by incorporating pricing information. The
application provides a framework to track the performance of HMA in Texas. The link currently established
between DCIS, SiteManager, and PMIS can be extended to link and include other TxDOT databases, e.g., the
Texas Flexible Pavements database and the Maintenance Management Information System (MMIS) database
Also, the application could be expanded and used to track the performance of other materials in Texas, not just
HMA. Furthermore the geographical component of the application opens up numerous possibilities that may be
explored to optimize TxDOT construction operations.
Key Words:
database, web application,
pavement management,
design and construction,
SiteManager
Application Site Manager Projects
RMC 1 30
First Year Progress Report on the Development of the Texas
0-5513-1 Flexible Pavement Database
This report presents a summary of some of the work carried out during the rst year of a 3-year research
project for the development of the Texas Flexible Pavement Database (TFPD). Many aspects of the TFPD have
changed since then and will be updated in the nal comprehensive research report.
Much has been learned from FHWA’s LTPP Program; as a matter of fact, the LTPP data structures formed the
basis and starting point for the current development. This initial framework was later signi cantly modi ed and
updated based on interaction with TxDOT personnel and a number of national experts that met in Austin for a
1-day workshop. Further modi cations were incorporated to accommodate unique TxDOT conditions such as
the availability of data from the Hamburg Wheel Tracking Device and the PathFinder study (TxDOT Project 0-
5496).
The Texas Flexible Pavement Database will contain new and old sections. The so-called old sections have
been obtained based on the remaining sections of the LTPP study in Texas. Those sections have already been
incorporated into the web-based database. The so-called new sections will correspond to some thirty pavements
sections selected among almost 100 candidates submitted by the following TxDOT districts: Austin, Beaumont,
Bryan, El Paso, Lubbock, Lufkin, Tyler, and Waco. These newer sections are, in turn, subdivided into the
following three groups: (i) asphalt surface on top of asphalt bases, (ii) asphalt
Key Words:
surface on top of untreated granular bases ( exbase) and (iii) surface treated
Pavement Management
pavements.
Information System,
mechanistic-empirical
pavement design, long term
pavement performance,
pavement design
LTPP Test Sections across Texas
RMC 1 31
Mitigating the Effects of Organics in Stabilized Soils: Technical
0-5540-1 Report
Laboratory test results of the 146 soils tested with the UV-Vis spectrophotometer yielded an r2 value of 0.89 for
the organic content. This simple procedure can be used in the field to estimate the amount of deleterious organic
matter in about 15 minutes. Using the manufactured soils, the researchers found that humic acid (a major
component of organic matter) prevents the lime from reacting with clay minerals in the soil to form pozzolanic
reaction products (i.e., calcium silicate hydrate) if the humic acid is present in the soil at concentrations above 1
percent by weight. The DSC can also be used to measure the effectiveness of lime stabilization in organic-rich
soils: it detects a crystallization product at 850-900°C, which has been directly correlated with UCS.
Researchers experimented with both calcium-saturated and sodium-saturated smectites to see how important
cation saturation (i.e., calcareous soils) is with respect to lime stabilization. There was a profound impact
on the strength and ability of the lime to form pozzolanic reaction products with cation saturation. The
calciumsaturated clays provided UCS values over 400 psi, and the sodium-saturated samples barely exceeded
100 psi.
The natural soils exhibit properties similar to the manufactured soils. As the percent of organic matter increased
in the soil, dry density decreased, optimum water contents increased, and the effectiveness of lime and cement
in altering the engineering properties decreased. For example, the lime and cement significantly reduce the
plasticity of a highly plastic soil. However, in these natural soils, as the organic content increases, the lime
and cement become less effective in reducing the plasticity index of the soil. More importantly, after 56 days
of curing there was a decrease in the UCS of lime- and cement-treated samples bearing high concentrations
of organic matter. The shrink/swell characteristics of the soils increase with increasing organic matter, which
shows that the lime and cement are not effectively stabilizing the soil.
The UV-Vis method for measuring organic matter is a good field technique that measures actual deleterious
constituents.
Humic acid, in concentrations greater than 1 percent, interferes with lime stabilization of soil by not allowing
the lime to form the pozzolanic reaction products that generate long-term strength gain.
Calcareous soils with high concentrations of organic matter (more than 1 percent) respond more favorably to
lime treatment than acid soils.
The natural soils show an increase in shrink/swell with increasing organic matter.
With increasing organic matter, the natural soils stabilized with lime or cement Key Words:
exhibit a decrease in UCS after 56 days of curing. humic acid, lime stabilization,
organic soils, UV-Vis Method,
organic matter measurement
RMC 1 32
Deploying Weigh-in-Motion Installations on Asphalt Concrete
0-5551-1 Pavements
The review of WIM practices identified that most states use bending plates, load cells, piezoelectric sensors,
and Kistler quartz sensors at WIM installations. With respect to the newer quartz sensors, proper installation on
pavements that provide adequate support appears to be a key factor in getting good load sensor performance and
service life. To date, the limited experience with Kistler quartz sensors in Texas has generally been good.
The review of WIM practices did not identify any new and innovative low-cost WIM sensor that can be
recommended for practical use at this time in a state WIM network. Tests conducted in this project showed that
solar panels provide a viable alternative in the absence of land lines when properly matched with the expected WIM
system power requirements. With respect to data communications, researchers concluded that current wireless
cellular technology provides the most reasonable alternative to traditional wire line dialup.
The WIM smoothness criteria in the provisional American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) MP-14 specification generally produced inconclusive determinations of whether a WIM installation
classifies as Type I or not for the TxDOT WIM sites tested in this project.
Researchers identified the following potential applications of the falling weight deflectometer (FWD) for
maintenance of WIM sensors: 1) as a tool to check the linearity of the WIM response to applied loads, and 2) as a
tool to check the consistency in the WIM readings from repeat measurements at a given drop height. However, more
work is needed before any definitive conclusions can be made for using the FWD to perform checks on existing
WIM systems. FWD deflections taken on the 500-ft perpetual pavement WIM sections south of Cotulla show the
uniformity and degree of pavement support to be comparable to that provided by CRCP. Data from tests conducted
with a calibration truck also showed no significant correlation between pavement temperature and measurement
errors of gross vehicle weight for the quartz WIM sensors installed on the perpetual pavements at the site.
The engineering evaluation of the proposed WIM site along US77 in Robstown showed evidence of potential
pavement performance problems as reflected in the results of laboratory tests done on cores and the observed
premature cracking at the site. The fact that the mix passed the Hamburg test but performed poorly on the overlay
tester indicates a need for a balanced mix design based on rutting and cracking criteria.
Based on roundtable discussions conducted with TxDOT, researchers are of the opinion that the Statewide Traffic
Analysis and Reporting System (STARS 2) provides the main opportunity to improve current internal procedures for
summarizing and reporting truck weight data. This new program will cover all data procedures and is expected to
provide for the traffic-related data needs of various users within TxDOT.
TxDOT should implement the proposed guidelines to locate suitable asphalt concrete pavement sections for WIM
installations. Based on the cost for the four-lane Kistler quartz WIM system installed in Balmorhea, four 500-ft
CRCP slabs are equivalent to about eight four-lane Kistler quartz WIM systems.
TxDOT should consider funding a contract to support implementation of the flexible pavement WIM evaluation
guidelines as part of its ongoing effort to establish a state highway WIM network. TxDOT should also consider
funding a follow-up research project to further investigate the potential applications of the FWD to serve WIM
system maintenance and calibration needs. TxDOT’s Transportation Planning and Programming Division (TPP)
should continue its efforts to install cost-effective WIM technology that does not result in degradation of data quality.
In particular, technology that performs to standard in asphalt concrete pavements
should be encouraged. TPP should make efforts to include divisions and Key Words:
sections of TxDOT and other state agencies that use or desire to use WIM data humic acid, lime stabilization,
in the development of STARS 2. Close coordination with these entities during organic soils, UV-Vis Method,
development will ensure that user data requirements are addressed. organic matter measurement
RMC 1 33
Guidelines for Using Local Materials for Roadway Base and
0-5562-1 Subbase
http://ctis.utep.edu/publications/Reports/0-5562_1%20Report%20final.pdf
For all the cement-treated base materials (with 1% cement) and most of the lime-treated base materials,
the strength values at 0 psi lateral pressure and 15 psi lateral pressure met the Item 247 minimum strength
requirements of 45 psi and 180 psi, respectively.
For most materials, the change in gradation did not significantly improve the quality of low-quality local
material.
Although most of the raw, gradation-modified and treated materials passed the retained modulus of 80% and
the retained strength of 80%, the retained modulus and the retained strength largely depended upon the type of
material.
The dielectric constants for the materials with increased fines content showed higher values than the ones
obtained from raw materials; whereas for the materials with reduced fines content, the dielectric constants
showed lower values than those obtained from raw materials. For most of the materials treated with 1% cement
or 1% lime, the dielectric constants showed higher values as compared with the ones obtained from raw
materials.
Most of the raw materials did not meet the resilient modulus of 40 ksi. The resilient modulus of 40 ksi for
cement-treated and lime-treated materials was readily achieved. For most materials, the resilient modulus of
cement-treated base was found out to be higher than the ones obtained from lime-treated base materials.
The equivalent thicknesses of base layer were determined by using the resilient modulus and permanent
deformation parameters obtained from laboratory tests. The permanent deformation test parameters α and μ
of the base layer controls the amount of rutting that a section experiences. It is of utmost importance to obtain
these parameters before replacing a high-quality base with lower quality local bases.
The current pavement design algorithms (e.g. FPS19 or Texas Triaxial Design check) should be used with
utmost care to replace a high-quality base with a lower quality base. These algorithms tend to provide base
thicknesses that are over conservative. More advanced analysis with either VESYS or TxIntPave is required to
ensure the stability of the low-quality base.
The utilization of the lower quality local materials as a subbase layer seems feasible and advantageous. The top
6 in. to 8 in. of the base layer placed on the low-volume road with thin surfacing or surface treatment seems
to contribute to the rutting. As such for bases thicker than 12 in. the use of
the low-quality local base as subbase, especially for strong subgrades, is Key Words:
recommended. base material, low volume
road, strength, modulus,
chemical treatment, structural
analysis
RMC 1 34
Design and Performance Evaluation of Very Thin Overlays in
0-5598-2 Texas
The combination of the Hamburg and Overlay tester is highly recommended to produce a balance mix design
for these overlays.
The current volumetric procedure where an “optimal” asphalt content is defined in terms of an assigned
number of gyrations and target density is difficult to implement when both performance tests must be passed.
This procedure may work well for a single binder type and class of aggregate, but it runs into problems when
variations occur.
The design procedure proposed recommends running the rutting and reflection cracking performance tests
at a range of binder contents prior to checking volumetrics. This approach has several advantages over the
volumetric approach as it a) provides districts with a working range of binder contents where acceptable
performance can be anticipated (this range can be used to set tolerance levels during production), b) it quickly
identifies asphalt and aggregate combinations where both performance requirements cannot be met, and c) can
provide more economic mixes as it is thought the current volumetric procedure often results in too high an
asphalt content.
The CAM mix performance to date has been very good. The performance of the one inch overlay over jointed
concrete pavement on Pumphrey Drive in Fort Worth has been very encouraging although more monitoring
must be performed.
Upfront testing must be performed on any project (especially jointed concrete) to ensure that it is a good
candidate for a thin overlay. TxDOT has all of the nondestructive testing tools in-house including GPR, FWD,
and RDD to ensure that any project is a good candidate for these very thin overlays.
Excellent skid resistance results were obtained on most of these projects.
Problems will occur if the temperature at the time of compaction (not placement) is not carefully controlled.
These very thin mats will not be readily compacted if the temperature is not controlled. The use of the Infra-red
bar or thermal camera inspection should be encouraged on future jobs.
As demonstrated in Laredo, successful CAM designs can be achieved with local aggregates (crushed gravel)
and softer binders.
On future designs it is proposed that the two proposed mix design procedures be run in parallel. The new
volumetric procedure to be included in the statewide specification (SS3109) should be compared with the final
balanced mix design approach proposed in this report.
Districts wishing to gain experience with the CAM mix for the first time should be encouraged to design the
first mix in-house with assistance. Several contractors are struggling to
arrive at an acceptable mix design. Balancing both rutting and cracking Key Words:
requirements can be very challenging. thin overlay, rutting, cracking,
skid resistance,
The existing projects need to be monitored for a longer period. Hamburg, overlay, Ground
Penetration Radar,
Rolling Dynamic
Deflectometer, Infra-red
RMC 1 35
Improved Pavement Distress Rating System
We have developed and tested a new version of a field prototype for a laser-based, real-time detection system
for measuring pavement distress as an improvement of capabilities to the automated pavement distress rating
system that has been implemented in TxDOT. It achieved the goals of scanning 12-ft wide pavements, covering
the entire travel distance, and saving and analyzing images at real-time up to 30 mph survey speed. The shadow
effect is no longer a problem with the new system. The power consumption is reduced to under 150w.
The test results verified that the principle of our detection system is technically sound and indicated that the
algorithm implemented in the software works effectively in most cases. However, when compared with manual
crack rating, the image processing algorithm tends to underestimate cracks. This is partly because some of the
cracks are not discernable in the picture due to the limited pixel resolution and contrast. Changing the pixel
coefficients may improve the overall brightness of captured pictures, but it may not help increase the signal-to-
noise ratio. The algorithm also has limited generalization when processing pavements of various textures.
The real-time processing speed can be improved by using more powerful computers and enhancing the
efficiency of software coding.
Key Words:
crack detection, linear lighting,
laser illumination, linescan
camera
Performance of Image Processing

Algorithm: Both of the longitudinal and
transverse cracks in the picture are easy
to be discerned by visual inspection.
RMC 1 36
Design, Constructability Review and Performance of Dual Base
0-5797-1 Stabilizer Applications
http://ctis.utep.edu/publications/Reports/Report-0-5797-1_final.pdf
The amount of emulsion should be limited to ensure the constructability of the mix. A worksheet was developed
to ensure that the maximum emulsion permitted is compatible with the initial amount of water added.
Indirect tensile strength (IDTS) is more sensitive to the amount of emulsion. As such, the main strength criteria
for mix design should be based on the IDTS as opposed to the compressive strength.
The strain at failure of a specimen prepared with an emulsion-treated mixture increases significantly when
compared to a mixture without emulsion, which could reduce pavement cracking.
Emulsion-treated materials have low dielectric constants and high retained strength and modulus after moisture
conditioning, provided that the average initial curing temperature is not lower than 70 °F.
Initially mixing (or adding) water of about 60% of the optimum moisture content is sufficient for adequate
compaction for most materials if the reclaimed asphalt pavement content in the mixture is less than 50%.
Α small change in gradation of a material has a minimal effect on the strength and modulus of the material but
impacts its moisture susceptibility.
Mixing method has a significant effect on the strength of materials, especially in the case of materials with
higher fine contents. The high shear mixer may produce more uniform mixtures.
Compaction method does affect the strength and modulus of emulsion-treated bases. The mixes with the
gyratory compactor exhibit higher strength and modulus. However, the laboratory results should be further
compared with those observed in the field so that the method which is more representative of the field
conditions can be selected.
The temperature at which the material is mixed does not impact the final strength and modulus achieved as long
as it is not lower than about 70 °F.
The temperature at which an emulsion mixture is initially cured (2 to 3 days) has a significant effect on the final
strength and modulus achieved.
The nuclear density gauge may not be a good tool for quality control and quality assurance for emulsion-treated
bases.
For the most part, the current TxDOT Special Specification for emulsion-treated bases is reasonable, if enforced
during construction.
Full-depth reclamation with asphalt emulsion treatment is a cost-effective method for rehabilitation of distressed
roads, provided that the road mixing and compaction are properly performed under appropriate weather
conditions.
Key Words:
Asphalt Emulsion, Dual
Stabilization Mix Design,
Strength, Modulus, Full Depth
Reclamation
RMC 1 37
A Review of Performance Models and Test Procedures With
0-5798-1 Recommendations for use in The Texas M-E Design Program
Given the scope of this project, the research team recognized the importance of obtaining material properties
from existing TxDOT laboratory tests. After a realistic appreciation of the complexity of merging test
procedures used with pavement design as compared with those required for thickness design, the research team
strongly believes that the most appropriate model for predicting the rutting in exible pavement systems is a
VESYS-type model in which the repeated load test is required to determine HMA permanent deformation
properties.
For HMA layers, the HWTT will be explored as an alternative test for evaluating HMA permanent deformation
properties. Meanwhile, the most practical fatigue cracking model is the Overlay Tester-based fatigue model in
which the Overlay Tester is used to determine HMA fracture properties.
Key Words:
exible pavement design,
overlay test, repeated load
test, rutting, fatigue cracking,
TexME
The Overlay Tester and

Specimen Setup
RMC 1 38
Synthesis of Workload Reduction Strategies for Construction
0-5799-1 Inspection
TxDOT and other state DOTs are experiencing inspection workforce shortages that can be addressed by
implementing creative workload reduction strategies. This project summarized TxDOT’s current workload
challenges, identified successful workload reduction strategies that have been implemented in other state DOTs,
and compared TxDOT’s challenges and practices to the other states’ challenges and practices.
Overall, 31 workload reduction strategies were identified by TxDOT and other state DOTs to address 10
key workload challenges within TxDOT. These strategies show promise at increasing inspection and testing
efficiency and decreasing unproductive time spent on activities that involve low risk pay items or particularly
time consuming tasks.
A workshop with TxDOT personnel was conducted and the 31 workload reduction strategies were ranked on
eight criteria, with an emphasis on highlighting strategies with the greatest potential of decreasing inspection
time without increasing construction project costs or reducing the overall quality of the end product. As a result
of the workshop analysis, the top workload reduction techniques with the potential to provide the most benefit
to TxDOT have been identified.
A guideline was developed for implementing the top 10 ranked and two specialty workload reduction strategies
within TxDOT. The guideline should be implemented within TxDOT to more
Key Words:
effectively manage their inspection workload while maintaining quality.
workforce shortage, workload
reduction, inspection,
testing, outsourcing, quality
control, quality assurance.
Map of State DOTs that Participated in Interviews
RMC 1 39
Using Cement Paste Rheology to Predict Concrete Mix Design
0-5820-1 Problems: Technical Report
The modifications that are made to the Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) to make it suitable for measuring
cement paste rheology are 1) both upper and lower plates were covered by 240 grit paper to prevent slippage,
2) a closed water circulation-based fluid jacket system was installed for temperature controlling, which ensured
avoiding direct specimen contact with water during rheology measurements, and 3) a sealing cap was developed
and installed to prevent water evaporation from the cement paste specimen during DSR test—free rotation of
the upper plates without any interference from the sealing cap was ensured.
The DSR test conditions were optimized in order to satisfy both repeatability and sensitivity in monitoring
the rheological changes of the cement paste at very early ages. The optimized test conditions are 1) 1 mm gap
between two plates was found to be optimum to generate data with the best reproducibility and sensitivity, 2)
a longer test duration (up to 2 hours with 10, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minute testing intervals) was needed in order
to derive an effective rate of change of rheological parameters under controlled evaporation control condition,
and 3) the shear rate range from 0 to 200/s yielded the most reproducible rheological parameters, although, DSR
normally operates with shear rates 0 to 300/s.
In the preliminary test program, both the DSR and AR 2000 (Advanced) rheometers in modified form were
capable of measuring cement paste rheology with permissible reproducibility and sensitivity with a 1 mm plate
gap. Both the rheometers were able to distinguish between normal and incompatible mixtures in the similar
manner, although the absolute values were not exactly the same. This validated the applicability of DSR to
measure cement paste rheology as well as identifying incompatible mixtures. The heat of hydration data from
isothermal calorimeter test and setting time behaviors from vicat needle test have strongly supported the
rheology-based observations.
An experimental design has been formulated by considering two types of cements, three types of Supplementery
Cementitious Materials (SCMs), two types of lignin-based chemical admixtures with two different dosages,
and three temperatures for the main laboratory investigation. Absolute values of plastic viscosity and yield
stress were determined corresponding to five time intervals (10, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes) for all the selected
mixtures. The slope of the linear region from time vs. PV/YS plots represented the rate of change of plastic
viscosity and yield stress within a 2-hour time period. Almost all the incompatible mixtures identified by heat
evolution criteria are identified with abnormal ranges of RPV and RYS. Therefore, the heat evolution and
setting time results strongly supported the rheologybased test results.
The rate of change of rheological parameters was found to be more sensitive than the absolute values of
rheological parameters to identify the studied incompatible mixtures. Both RPV and RYS are acceptable
to formulate criteria of incompatibilities, however, RPV is more sensitive to distinguish between normal
and incompatible mixtures. A generalized acceptance criterion, i.e., ≤ 0.0198 for PRV and ≤ 13.58 for RYS
irrespective of SCM type and temperature, is obtained based on the available data from this project.
Reproducibility of the rheological parameters (both absolute values and rates) based on the two mixes at three
different temperatures with three replicas are verified as a part of a field demonstration program. Coefficient of
variation (COV) of both absolute values of PV and RPV is below 10. The COV of the YS and RYS is also under
10 for the 60 percent of the cases. The COV of the YS and RYS for the
Key Words:
remaining 40 percent cases is under 17.
cement paste, concrete, chemical
In the mini slump cone test, 5 minute pat area was found to be a admixture, incompatibility,
relatively better criterion than the other parameters (e.g., rate of change rheology, plastic viscosity, yield
of pat area). However, the researchers observed both false positive and stress, setting time, heat of
negatives after applying this criterion, and therefore, it did not appear to hydration, stiffening, workability,
be an effective criteria. mini slump
RMC 1 40
Optimized Design of Concrete Curb Under Off Tracking Loads
The literature search showed that not much research work had been done in the area of structural design of
CCCG. Instead, most of the research effort has focused on the safety effectiveness of curbs and the use of curbs
in conjunction with traffic barriers.
From the field inspections, all damaged CCCG systems were the TxDOT Type II system and almost all
damaged CCCG (concrete curb and curb and gutter) systems were found at U-Turn curbs. Failure occurred
regardless of vertical tie bar spacing and joint spacing.
The straight bar manually inserted into the fresh concrete showed the least bond strength, and the drilled and
epoxy-grouted dowels showed the best performance in terms of bond strength. This is only true when the
epoxy-grouted dowels are installed properly.
The horizontal loading is the most critical loading condition to evaluate structural adequacy of a CCCG
system.
The structural capacity of CCCG can be enhanced by increasing the curb width and/or by inserting the curb
dowel farther from the inner surface of CCCG.
It is necessary to consider economic efficiency and constructability when designing the CCCG system because
the curb width and the location of curb dowels are limited in their ability to enhance the structural capacity of
CCCG.
The changes in the stress of concrete are minimal if the curb widths of CCCG exceed 24 in.
The effect of the location of the curb dowel becomes insignificant when the distance between the dowel and the
traffic face of a CCCG exceeds 8 in.
From the field inspection results, it is concluded that the off tracking of truck loadings was the main cause of
the curb damage. The geometric changes of the curb design are the fundamental solutions for the off tracking
failure, but it is not feasible in most cases due to economic and space limitations.
The use of epoxy grouted bars, as the vertical reinforcement of the CCCG systems is the best available and
practical option for the new construction of CCCG systems.
The use of the new U-Turn curb design from TxDOT’s Houston District is highly recommended for areas
effected by the off tracking of heavy vehicles.
Although the current dowel bar location in the new U-Turn curb design is found to be structurally adequate, it is
recommended to change the location of the curb dowel to the farthest location from the traffic face of a CCCG
system for better performance. A distance between the location of dowel and the traffic face of CCCG of 8 in. or
higher is recommended.
Curb width of 24 in. or higher is recommended to provide adequate structural capacity.
It is also recommended to use an epoxy-grouted curb dowel instead of the manually inserted straight dowel bar
to ensure better bond performance between dowel bar and concrete in a CCCG system.
Key Words:
concrete, curb, gutter, dowel,
off tracking
RMC 1 41
Synthesis Study on Transverse Variable Asphalt Application
0-5833-1 Rates for Seal Coats
Development of TVAR techniques in New Zealand have been documented in the literature. Use is reported to be
successful and expanding in that country.
At the time of the Texas survey in early 2008, 13 TxDOT districts were currently using TVAR techniques
as standard practice, several other districts were experimenting with it, and 8 districts reported having no
experience or experimentation with TVAR over the past five years.
TVAR is being used by districts using emulsified asphalts and districts using hot asphalt cements.
TVAR is being used with Grade 3 and Grade 4 aggregates, lightweight and natural aggregates, and precoated
and plain aggregates.
TVAR is being successfully placed using standard, single-bar asphalt distributors as well as multi-bar
distributors designed to facilitate TVAR applications.
Comparative texture testing of wheel path and outside of wheel path locations appears to be a viable method for
estimating most appropriate transverse asphalt application variations.
Differences in Sand Patch Test circle diameters appear to correlate better to degree of observable wheel path
flushing than do mean texture depths calculated from Sand Patch Testing.
Texture test results obtained from Circular Track Meter and Sand Patch Test methods correlated with an
r-squared value of 0.96 for tests performed in the wheel paths and a value of 0.95 for tests performed between
the wheel paths.
Texture test results obtained from Circular Track Meter and Outflow Test methods correlated with an r-squared
value of 0.82 for tests performed in the wheel paths and a value of 0.54 for tests performed between the wheel
paths.
TxDOT should expand use of TVAR seal coat techniques to a statewide basis.
Regional workshops are recommended to expedite training of personnel in use of TVAR techniques.
Existing TxDOT seal coat design and inspection training courses should be revised to include TVAR-related
techniques.
It is recommended that a simplification of Test Method Tex-436-A, Sand Patch Test, be used to assist field
personnel in determining when and how much to transversely vary seal coat asphalt application rates.
The performance of the seal coated pavements included in this project
should be monitored for the lives of the seal coats, particularly concerning Key Words:
reoccurrence of wheel path flushing and loss of aggregate outside of wheel flexible pavement, seal coat,
paths. surface treatment, Transverse
Variable Asphalt Application
Rate, TVAR, seal coat design,
flushing, bleeding, shelling,
aggregate loss, Knowledge
Management
RMC 1 42
Develop a New Testing and Evaluation Protocol to Assess
0-5873-1 Flexbase Performance Using Strength of Soil Binder
The data collected and analyzed in this research study showed that small test specimens (5.0in length and 0.75in
square cross section) of binder material can be molded, cured, and load tested to obtain consistent and reliable
flexural strength data for most flexible base materials.
Furthermore, the data supported the view that the strength of the binder component of roadway base materials
has significant influence on the strength of the composite material. In other words, good correlation could
be established between the binder strength and 0-psi Texas triaxial strength. The strength of the correlation
could be further improved when materials were categorized into sub-groups based on the shape of the flexural
strength-moisture content characteristic curve. Among the different sub-groups, the crushed limestone materials
provided the best correlation. Limited data of materials modified with cement and flyash also provided
reasonably good correlation. Many sand and gravel sources did not produce any consistent trend in data and
therefore, could not be included in correlation studies. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that estimation of
composite strength based on binder strength is not viable for sand and gravel materials.
The data obtained from repeatability studies provided an average coefficient of variation (COV) of 12.6%
for the base binder flexometer test. This estimate of the COV is significantly better than the COV of 23.2%
calculated for the 0-psi Texas Triaxial Test. Better repeatability of the flexural strength test may be partly
attributed to the uniformity in the material used in this test. In other words, there is less variability in the binder
portion (i.e., minus sieve No. 40) of the material when compared to the composite that is tested in the Texas
Triaxial Test.
To test the new prototype test device, parallel tests were run on the same materials using this device and
another, more sophisticated and expensive type of test equipment. The two data sets compared well. However,
this comparison also revealed a minor limitation in the new test device. It was found that the new test device
overpredicted the flexural strengths when the test specimens had measurable deflection at the point of loading.
Steps should be taken to correct this problem before implementation of the test device.
Based on the findings from this research study, it is recommended that the base binder flexometer test be
implemented in several trial implementation projects to develop an acceptance criteria for this test. In these
projects the new test should be used as a supplementary test procedure. In other words, the flexometer
test procedure should be run in addition to the test methods that are required by the specifications. The lab
technicians who perform the binder flexural test for these projects should have prior experience with the test
procedure or should have received adequate training. The objectives of these trial implementation projects
would be to further expand the database that was developed in this research project, identify any special
concerns that may arise during field implementation of the test protocol, and develop minimum acceptance
criteria. These implementation projects would also provide an opportunity to validate the flexural-triaxial
strength correlation before statewide implementation occurs.
Further research is needed to investigate the following aspects of the base binder test procedure: 1) fine tuning
of the test procedure for testing base materials blended with modifiers such as lime, cement and
flyash, and 2) single-lab and multi-lab variability in the test procedure.
Key Words:
flexible base, flexural strength,
Texas Triaxial Test,
base binder
RMC 1 43
A Portable Profiler for Pavement Profile Measurements
This interim report has provided details on progress made during the first part of project 0-6004 - Development
of a Portable Profiler. The project was initiated to develop a single path, easy to use, portable profiler that can
provide profile data or IRI values. The desired profiler module is being designed and developed to provide
TxDOT a unit that can easily be mounted or removed from the front or rear bumper of the typical TxDOT
vehicles for profile measurements. The profile generated is to be compatible with existing TxDOT formats.
During this first year of the project, initial investigations and analysis of road profiling methods, and sensors
used for these measurements have been performed. Laser, accelerometer, and other equipment have been
obtained for constructing the portable instrument module. A candidate portable attachment apparatus was
purchased. A prototype portable instrument module for profile measurements has been constructed and is
currently being tested. Two road sections were established in Bryan/College Station on which researchers
collected reference profile data. These sections were used in the initial testing of the prototype profiler module.
The initial test results showed that the module provided profiles that met the certification requirements given in
TxDOT Test Method Tex-1001S.
Key Words:
profiler, profile measurement
laser, surface pavement profile
Prototype Profiler Module Mounted in Front of Test Vehicle
RMC 1 44
Evaluation of Binder Aging and its Influence in Aging of Hot
0-6009-1 Mix Asphalt Concrete: Literature Review and Experimental
Design
Binder oxidation in pavements and its impact on pavement performance has been addressed by numerous
laboratory studies of binder oxidation chemistry, reaction kinetics, and hardening and its impact on
mixture fatigue. Studies have also included some work on binder oxidation and hardening in pavements
and the effectiveness of maintenance treatments. Yet more such studies are needed to better understand the
fundamentals of pavement performance as a function of climate and pavement parameters.
Based on these reports in the literature, an experimental design has been developed to meet three objectives and
to provide four products. The objectives are: 1) to develop and calibrate a laboratory test to assess binder aging
during the production process and during the field service of the pavement, 2) to incorporate aging for use in
a HMA mix design system to produce mixtures that provide adequate resistance to fatigue cracking, including
guidelines to optimize resistance of HMA to aging, and 3) to evaluate the use of maintenance treatments
to reduce the aging of asphalt pavements starting at early ages. The products: 1) a new test procedure to
characterize binder aging, and predict service life for different applications, 2) an HMA mix design component
that incorporates aging and its effect on resistance to fatigue cracking, 3) guidelines for optimizing HMA
mixture resistance to aging, and 4) guidelines for the best maintenance treatments to reduce the aging of
binders.
The experimental design includes measurements of binder oxidation and hardening at various stages of binder
service, fundamental studies of binder oxidation and hardening kinetics, developing a transport model of
binder oxidation in pavements, measurements of field oxidation and hardening rates, measurements of mixture
fatigue decline as a function of binder oxidative hardening in both the field
Key Words:
and laboratory, and measurements of maintenance treatment effectiveness at
asphalt, asphalt durability
retarding binder oxidative hardening.
specification, asphalt concrete
long-term performance, asphalt
hardening in pavements,
asphalt fatigue, asphalt
maintenance
Prismatic Specimens
Testing of Prismatic Specimens in Direct Tension for CMSE
RMC 1 45
Evaluation of Ways and Procedures to Reduce Construction Cost
0-6011-1 and Increase Competition: Technical Report
A key finding of this study is that the rise in the cost of crude oil is not the sole factor contributing to the
increase in cost of construction. In fact, a confluence of a number of factors is contributing to the observed
trends in cost of construction including competition, contract requirements, and other factors discussed in this
report. Fact-finding workshops reveled that these factors can be both internal and external. While TxDOT can
try to eliminate some of the internal factors, eliminating external factors would a difficult if not impossible
task. The result from the Delphi study indicates that the cost reduction methods considered in this study can
both address the internal and hedge negative effects of external factors. It is important to note that the methods
applied in earlier phases of project development are perceived to have higher impact than those applied at the
later stages.
This research identified 56 methods that impact cost increase factors; some of these methods have program-
wide application and the rest have project-specific application. Such classification of methods is useful for
implementation. The program-wide applicable methods need some decision-making and policy-level changes
and impact a wider number of projects. The project-specific methods are effective in addressing specific issues
known to exist in the project development process.
While this research effort has identified a total of 56 cost reduction methods, only 35 methods are applicable
on a project-based level. Out of 56 methods, 21 methods have applicability at the program level. TxDOT
management should consider making arrangements for implementing these program-wide methods. In such
settings, TxDOT procedures should be flexible enough to adopt recommended methods.
Since the methods employed at the early stages of project development yield better cost reduction results,
management should consider pursuing implementation of methods in the planning and programming phase with
more focus.
The methods which have adverse effects on other performance measures should be considered with caution.
Further, since the results show only perceived performance, engineers should exercise their best judgment in
consideration of the methods. The information sheets developed to describe the methods should be a starting
point in evaluating their applicability.
Due to their strategic nature and lack of data, the performance of the methods identified in this research has been
assessed using the Delphi process where experts ranked the effectiveness of the methods to reduce the cost.
To fully assess the possible impact of the methods on the performance measures, a more quantitative analysis
is needed. The analysis would provide estimated value of the method, in contrast to the perceived value of the
method implementation considered in this study. However, it is important to note that these qualitative analyses
would require data to calibrate the developed model. While data availability
could be a limiting factor for some of the methods proposed in this study, for Key Words:
the other methods such data should be available. construction cost increase, bid
price, value engineering
RMC 1 46
Recommendations for Design, Construction, and Maintenance of
0-6022-1 Bridge Approach Slabs: Synthesis Report
Recent studies have summarized the following factors as contributors to differential settlements of the approach
slab: 1) Backfill materials under poorly performing approach slabs are often loose and under compacted, 2)
The foundation soil or embankment fill settles, 3) Many bridge approach elevation profiles have slopes higher
than 1/200, which is considered a maximum acceptable gradient for bridge approaches, 4) Voids develop under
bridge approaches within one year of construction, indicating insufficiently compacted and erodible backfill
material, 5) Inadequate drainage is a major bridge approach problem. Many abutment subdrains are dry with
no evidence of water, are blocked with soil and debris, or have collapsed, and 6) Many expansion joints are not
sufficiently filled, allowing water to flow into the underlying fill materials.
This report addresses major factors that cause approach bumps and summarizes findings from past studies.
Some of the topics addressed include: 1) Consolidation settlement of foundation soil, 2) Poor compaction and
consolidation of backfill material, 3) Poor drainage and soil erosion, 4) Types of bridge abutments, 5) Traffic
volume, 6) Age of the approach slab, 7) Approach slab design, 8) Skewness of the bridge, and 9) Seasonal
temperature variations.
Key Words:
bump, settlement, embankment,
foundation, erosion, approach
slab, mitigation techniques,
maintenance measures
Riprap used for Erosion Control
RMC 1 47
Synthesis on Construction Unit Cost Development: Technical
0-6023-1 Report
Most SHAs (state highway agencies) used historical bid-based estimating. Some SHAs utilized the cost-based
estimating technique during the plans, specifications, and estimate (PS&E) phase. This estimation approach
was often limited to estimating major items of work only. No SHA had a comprehensive documented process
for developing unit costs, including TxDOT. SHAs had no formal or documented process in place for adjusting
unit costs for project complexity and market conditions, including TxDOT. Though some SHAs had guidance
on factors that are often considered when adjusting unit costs for project estimation, most adjustments are made
based on the individual experience and engineering judgment of the estimator to select and apply unit costs.
TxDOT developed its in-house database and estimating tools, some of which are based on the Design and
Construction Information System (DCIS). District personnel used different sources of historical cost data and
tools to prepare their estimates. There were no documented procedures for developing unit costs and then
adjusting them for project conditions when preparing cost estimates within TxDOT districts.
The potential outcomes of this project depended on determining the practices of other SHAs. Since the survey
and interviews did not uncover any structured or comprehensive processes for development and adjustment of
unit costs, only potential recommendations can be provided based on observations related to similarities and
differences between TxDOT and other SHAs.
Consider cost-based estimating for items of work related to hot mix asphalt, steel, and concrete. These materials
have shown vast cost fluctuations in the recent past.
Consider Estimator (Trns*port®) for implementation in district offices for developing construction project
estimates in the PS&E phase as well as in the design phase of project development.
Consider the Site Manager database spreadsheet that is available on Crossroads (TxDOT intranet) for accessing
more current unit cost data on various line items in district offices.
Review the use of cost-based estimating for project estimation in the design and PS&E phases or a combination
of both cost-based estimating and historical bid-based estimating, with cost-based estimating used to estimate
major items of work.
Study the effort required to implement cost-based estimation in the Estimator software.
Use other information systems to access unit costs more efficiently (e.g., BidTabs Pro).
Develop an approach similar to the Red Flag analysis used by the Utah Department of Transportation to adjust
estimates based on unique project and site characteristics.
Key Words:
Develop guidelines for adjusting unit prices during different project phases. accessing unit cost, storing unit
cost, applying unit
cost, unit cost development
procedure, project cost
estimation
RMC 1 48
Subbase and Subgrade Performance Investigation for Concrete
0-6037-1 Pavement
The induced shear stress along the interface between concrete slab and base layer plays a major role in the
erosion process. As the stiffness of the joint or crack decreases, the slab shear stress increases under the applied
loading generating fines along the slabsubbase interface which are susceptible to dislocation under pressurized
water movement via pumping through joint or crack to the pavement surface. Pumping results in a void under
the slab and leads to a loss of joint stiffness.
The erosion of material beneath the slab is an important performance-related factor that needs to be addressed
in the selection of base materials as part of the design process for concrete pavements. In this regard, general
design factors such as concrete slab stiffness, traffic, environmental factors and strength and abrasion resistance
(or shear strength) of the base and subgrade materials should be considered relative to erodibility. Moreover,
drainage and layer frictional conditions should be considered in the design process in order to consider the full
extent of erosion damage. As background, past and current methods (including models) relative to erosion were
reviewed.
The presence of water, the erodibility of a subbase material, the rate of voiding, the amount of deflection, and
the number of loads are factors that influence erosion but current design procedures scarcely address these
factors. Many erosion tests were developed in the 1970s and 1980s using various testing devices but none
of those tests have been interpretable relative to field performance. Erosion test methods were reviewed and
evaluated relative to their utility to characterize subbase and subgrade materials for erosion resistance relative to
performance.
A list of alternative subbase types and materials were assembled based on the evaluation of field performance
and other functional factors. Accordingly, the experience with the use of cement-treated base had been good and
recyclable materials (recycled asphalt and recycled concrete) show promise economically. Testing of selected
materials is currently underway and results to date are summarized as well as a new test procedure to evaluate
erosion.
The effect of a stabilized layer in a rigid pavement system was characterized relative to bending and deflection
behavior using the ISLAB 2000 program. The relationship between the modulus of subgrade reaction and the
elastic modulus was reviewed. The effective k-value from equivalent deflection is different for load and curling
slab behavior. The elastic moduli and dynamic k-values from the backcalculation of FWD and ELSYM5 are
comparable; however, the interpretation of k-value from plate load testing is susceptible to edge boundary and
frictional condition. Nonetheless, a methodology shows how to consistently and realistically characterize CSB
layers with respect to a specific level of support.
Clearly, the advantage of a design framework is to relate the characteristics of the base to performance in terms
of the base thickness, stiffness, coefficient of friction, and strength and better understanding the use of subbase
materials in terms of their effect on pavement performance. The tools to advance pavement design to the next
level with respect to subbase performance are readily available and can be
assembled from the test results generated in this research program. Key Words:
subbase material, erosion, field
performance,
concrete pavement, k-value,
GPR, FWD, DCP,
Static Plate Load Test
RMC 1 49
Characterization of the Swelling Properties of Highly Plastic
0-6048-1 Clays Using Centrifuge Technology
The research team successfully used centrifuge technology to evaluate the swelling properties of highly
plastic clay. Testing performed for this project demonstrated the feasibility of expeditiously measuring the
swelling potential of highly plastic clays using a centrifuge permeameter. Specifically, a time period of 24
hours was found necessary for a 1 cm specimen of compacted clay to swell to an equilibrium height in the
centrifuge permeameter. This is in contrast to the one month of time required for free-swell test specimens
to reach equilibrium. Good agreement was found between tests conducted in the large centrifuge and small
centrifuge. Specifically, the average equilibrium strain for large and small centrifuge testing was within 0.1%
of one another. Finally, a methodology for determining the stress-strain relationship from centrifuge testing was
presented and validated. The relationship can be developed by running three 24 hour tests on a single specimen,
yielding a total testing time of 3 days.
Centrifuge permeameter technology has great potential to provide engineers with a means of quickly and
directly attaining the swelling of highly plastic clay. Rather than having to resort to index properties to predict
soil swelling, centrifuge permeation of highly plastic clays allows for the direct, expeditious, and consistent
experimental measurement of swelling.
Continued centrifuge testing would be instrumental in order to allow characterization of expansive clays that
are typically encountered in TxDOT pavement projects. Specifically, an additional testing program using high
plasticity soils from specific sites in the state would allow quantification of the potential heave at these sites.
Ultimately, the characterization of expansive clays at specific sites would allow comparison of experimentally
predicted vertical raise values with those obtained using less rigorous
approaches such as the PVR based on index clay properties. Key Words:
highly plastic clay, swelling,
centrifugation
The flexible-wall hydraulic conductivity test is used for evaluating

the movement of water through saturated highly plastic clays.
RMC 1 50
Pavement Scores Synthesis
The purpose of this synthesis was to summarize the use of pavement scores by the states, including the
rating methods used, the score scales, and descriptions; if the scores are used for recommending pavement
maintenance and rehabilitation actions; how the scores are computed; the distresses that are used for generating
the scores; the sampling method; the survey frequency; and each state agency’s legislative or internal goal.
The distresses considered and the way they are summarized into indices varies between states. Typically, the
extent and severity is used for computing scores. In rating distresses, some agencies use the most dominant
distress present, while others use all the distresses present. For each distress type/severity level, criteria are
established in terms of the distress index that indicates the need for rehabilitation. In addition, how the data
analysis results are used varies from state to state. According to the information collected for this synthesis, only
three states indicated that they have goals set by, or reported to, their respective legislatures. Internal agency
goals vary from state to state as well.
Since the scores are computed differently for each state, and since the sampling methods vary from state to
state, the definition of good or better varies significantly between each state;
Key Words:
therefore, direct comparisons between scores or percent lane miles in good
Pavement, Pavement
or better condition between states are not valid.
Management, Pavement Scores
RMC 1 51
Planning and
Environment
results
RMC 2
RMC 2 - Planning and Environment
Focus Areas
• Aviation System Planning
• Environmental Affairs Management
• Hazardous Materials
• Multi-modal & Inter-modal Freight
Planning
• Ports & Waterways Planning
• Public Transportation
• Railway Planning
• Right of Way Planning, Acquisition &
Management
• Roadway Planning
• Statewide, Regional & Local
Transportation System Planning
• Traffic Data Collection
RMC 2 53
Successional Establishment, Mowing Response, and Erosion
0-4949-1 Control Characteristics of Roadside Vegetation in Texas
No grass species listed in TxDOT’s standard seed mixes was observed as invasive. In areas less disturbed
by mowing, native grasses gradually took over and introduced species in TxDOT’s seed mixes became hardly
noticeable.
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), an introduced sod-forming grass, was found to be a dominant species on
front slopes of both FM 70 and SH 47. However, the dominance of Bermudagrass decreased on the back slopes
toward the right-of-way boundary. Bermudagrass became less competitive with native species on less disturbed
or undisturbed environments. Within the scope of this project, Bemudagrass was not found invasive.
Few, if any, of the seeded species were observed in established roadsides or laboratory test plots years after
seeding. Volunteer species (i.e., those not from the original seed mixes) were found to be dominating roadsides
in the long term.
Mowing frequency resulted in different compositions of roadside grasses. Short, sod-forming grasses were
adapted to zones more frequently mowed (about 3-4 times a year) and became less competitive on less
frequently mowed areas. Tall native grasses were not adapted to frequently mowed areas. However, in areas left
unmowed, tall native grasses gradually increased whereas introduced grasses decreased. Thus, roadside mowing
makes a specific group of plant populations adaptable to roadsides and most of these adapted species are not
natives.
Laboratory experimental plots, new or existing and mowed or unmowed, showed a significant variety of
plant species, meaning that highway roadsides can be rich in plant diversity and mowing maintenance may not
necessarily decrease plant diversity.
All field laboratory plots controlled erosion very well. Regardless of the slope, soil type, or mowing practices,
each plot of vegetation yielded sediments much less than the TxDOT’s allowable amounts.
Few studies were found on cost and benefit analysis about roadside management as a result of a lack of
consistent cost data held by state DOTs. Recommended research direction on cost and benefit of roadside
management is provided in the subsequent subsection.
None of the grass species examined in this project were found to be

Key Words:
invasive. Therefore, the research team does not recommend any changes
succession, roadsides, native plants,
to the district seed mix investigated in this project.
grasses, mowing, erosion control,
invasive
Dense and Tall Grasses on Existing Plots
RMC 2 54
Electronic Vehicle Identification: Applications and
0-5217-1 Implementation Considerations
Electronic Vehicle Identification (EVI) benefits to managers of the transportation system include better data for
managing operations through monitoring of travel times and congestion. For example, in Houston, tag readers
mounted on gantries on freeways scan toll tags to record travel time. Another benefit is better information
for travelers, resulting in traffic redistribution and higher throughputs, leading to better utilization of existing
systems. These benefits also include, better traffic signal coordination and prioritization, better reporting of
infrastructure condition and maintenance, higher compliance with safety and regulatory requirements, and lower
costs for deployment of future ITS elements.
EVI will likely benefit travelers also. These benefits could include, customized information on traffic conditions,
e.g., in-vehicle feeds, time savings from higher traffic throughputs and ability to avoid congestion, and lower
fuel costs, pollution levels, and vehicle wear-and-tear.
Likely commercial vehicle operator benefits could include, better information on travel times and preferred
routes, including notification of load-zoned or restricted lanes, in-vehicle safety warnings and alerts,
pre-clearance (green line) at border crossings, inspection and weigh stations, or other interdiction points, and
asset tracking and e-commerce services.
The general public would likely obtain additional benefits such as higher compliance with insurance and safety
requirements, location of stolen or wanted vehicles, controlled access to secure areas, and deferred need for
expansion of the system because of better utilization of existing assets.
In this research, an analysis of the costs and benefits of implementing EVI was conducted. It was found that the
annual benefits for the state of Texas are less than the costs, and the B/C ratio is in the range of 0.94 to 0.38.
It must be stressed that not all the benefits were quantified. Of those calculated, 19-29% would come from
enhanced governmental revenues. Benefits to road users, namely improved traffic data, fewer crashes, and better
recovery of stolen vehicles would contribute 71-81% of benefits. For an urban case in the Austin area, the B/C
ratio is in the range of 2.33 to 1.27. Enhanced governmental revenues would provide 14-20% of the benefits.
Road user benefits would constitute 80-86% of those calculated. These percentages indicate the relative impacts
of EVI on transportation, and can be used to focus on specific aspects of implementation and on gaining public
support.
The costs for the system include tag distribution, infrastructure (hard) and data processing (soft) costs. For a
statewide program, tag costs would be in the range of 23-36% of the total. Infrastructure costs would be 32-33%
of total, while data processing costs would be 32-44% of total. For an urban program, tag costs would be 51-
68% of total, infrastructure costs would be 2-5% of total, and data processing costs would be 30-45% of total. A
large part of these costs will be incurred initially in establishing the system, meaning that funding for the system
will need to be upfront. In all likelihood deployment would have to be phased.
Key Words:
Electronic Vehicle Identification,
tolling, DSRC standards, electronic
data privacy, electronic vehicle
registration, cost-benefit analysis,
EVI timeline.
RMC 2 55
Evaluation of Texas Native Grasses for TxDOT Right of Ways
Under the conditions of this study, native windmill grasses, when used as a component in a native seed mixture,
provided vegetation cover similar to TxDOT’s current standard seeding mixture. However, in Kleberg County
during 2006, on sandy soil, the standard seeding mixture produced 19% greater canopy cover than the native
mix used on the 90-day post-treatment evaluation. Soil retention blankets increased absolute canopy cover
on half of the 90-day post-treatment evaluations. Absolute canopy cover was similar for all treatment plots at
these 90-day evaluations. Monoculture plots of windmill grass also provided absolute canopy cover similar to
bermuda grass plots within 90 days of planting. Based on results obtained from the mowing regimen, the native
windmill grasses survived and no negative effects to its growth were shown, indicating long-term survival
traits under mowing. Drill seeding and broadcasting demonstrated the ability of native species to establish in a
semiarid area using common seeding methods.
Native windmill grasses evolved in the harsh environments of Texas, which demonstrates their potential
for long-term sustainability. Hooded and shortspike windmill grasses possess important reproductive
characteristics, such as rapid germination, strongly stoloniferous growth habit, and production of seeds
throughout the year. Based on the results from this study, these qualities allowed the native windmill grasses
to achieve the required vegetative cover within 90 days of planting at
Key Words:
different locations and soil textures throughout Texas, based on the 2003
native grasses, right of ways,
Texas Pollution Discharge Elimination System guidelines.
hooded windmillgrass, Chloris
cucullata, shortspike windmillgrass,
Chloris × subdolichostachya,
bermudagrass, Cynodon dactylon
Point Intercept Frame

Used for Evaluations to
Estimate Canopy Cover
RMC 2 56
GIS Models for Analyzing Intercity Commute Patterns: A Case
0-5345-2 Study of the Austin-San Antonio Corridor in Texas
Researchers developed a set of Geographic Information System (GIS) based analysis models for the
identification of intercity commuting patterns and travel corridors in Central Texas. They examined commuting
patterns between rural communities and urban areas as well as commuting flows between different counties
(cities) in a five-county study area in Central Texas based on the U.S. 2000 Census Journey-to-Work data.
Researchers identified traffic corridors that carry a significant amount of intercity and rural-to-urban traffic in
the five-county study area based on the U.S. 2000 Census Journey-to-Work data and the 2005 TTI external
travel survey data and identified rural communities that generated the largest numbers of commuting traffic and
road segments that carried a high volume of traffic.
Based on the analysis results, the research team reached a set of preliminary conclusions such as: 1) The
GIS-based analysis models are effective for analyzing commuting patterns and travel corridors in both the
Census Journey-to-Work data and the TTI external survey data, 2) Commute flows between urban and rural
areas account for about 20% of the total commute traffic in the five-county (Bexar, Comal, Hays, Travis, and
Williamson) study area, and Inter-County commute accounts for 13% of the total commute traffic in the five-
county study area, 3) The majority of the top rural communities with high commute flows to urban communities
are located in northern and northwestern parts of Travis County and scattered in the western, northern, eastern,
and southeastern parts of Bexar County, and 4) Road segments with high traffic volumes are on IH-35 between
East Martin Luther King Jr. Blvd and US-290 in Austin. This observation indicates that this section of IH-35
receives significantly more commuting traffic than the rest of roadways in the study area.
Key Words:
transportation, transit, commuting,
GIS, network analysis, Journey-to-
Work
RMC 2 57
Impacts of Current and Future Demographic Change on
0-5392-2 Transportation Planning in Texas: Final Technical Report
http://idser.utsa.edu/projects/txdot/files/Final_Technical_Report.pdf
This report summarizes findings and conclusions after examining the broad implications of demographic
change for Texas’ transportation system and TxDOT relative to: 1) General patterns of population growth and
distribution, 2) Changing population and household characteristics, and 3) Specific dimensions of transportation
demand and use.
For example, 2 findings relative to general patterns of population growth and distribution are: 1) The State of
Texas will continue to experience rapid population growth, increasing in size from 20.9 million people in 2000
to between 43.6 million and 51.7 million. This is an increase of between 109 and 148 percent between 2000 and
2040, and 2) Despite continued population growth overall, some areas will grow more rapidly than others while
some may even experience population decline. As a result, over 70 percent of the population will live within
the 5 largest TxDOT districts of Houston, Dallas, San Antonio, Austin, and Fort Worth by 2040 (up from 64
percent in 2006). During the same period, from 2 to 6 districts will experience population declines under the 2
population projection scenarios examined.
Relative to changing population and household characteristics, researchers found that the population 65 years
of age and older will increase markedly compared to the population as a whole from 9.9 percent of the total
population in 2000 to about 16 percent of the population by 2040. Whereas the total population will increase
from between 109 to 148 percent, the population 65 years of old will increase from between 220 and 273
percent from 2005 to 2040. Thus, the total population 65 and older will grow from 2.2 million in 2005 to
between 7.1 and 8.2 million in 2040.
One of the findings relative to specific dimensions of transportation demand and use is that from 2000 to 2040,
the number of commuters in Texas will increase substantially from 9.2 million in 2000 to between 18.7 and 22.2
million (percentage increases of between 104 and 142 percent) by 2040 and the proportion living and working
in the same county will decrease from 78 to 70 percent. Although central city counties will continue to have the
largest number of commuters in the future under either projection, under both projection scenarios the largest
numeric and percentage changes will be in the number of commuters from large suburban county resident
areas. By 2040 (under either projection scenario), at least 3l percent of all commuters (compared to less than 17
percent in 2000) will reside in suburban counties, an increase of nearly 5.5 million and 350 percent from 2000
to 2040.
Major challenges likely to impact Texas and TxDOT are challenges such as: The challenge of growth, the
challenge of population distribution, the challenge of an aging population, the challenges of increased diversity,
and the challenge of an aging and diverse population.
Key Words:
demographic data, statistics,
transportation planning, population,
database
RMC 2 58
Strategies for Improving Travel Time Reliability
A driver’s route choice and departure time choice decisions for a trip do not depend on only the average travel
time of the available routes, but also the travel time reliability of each of the routes. Transportation planners
typically use deterministic network models in the traffic assignment process. Incorporating travel time reliability
in the route choice and departure time choice modeling in traffic assignment could improve the precision of
the evaluation of network performance. This research develops two traffic assignment approaches that include
travel time uncertainty and driver’s response to such uncertainty in route choice and departure time choice.
The traffic assignment approaches are based on a network in which the link travel time (at the same time of
the day, at a given link volume) is subjected to day-to-day fluctuation. The variation could be due to incidents,
weather, vehicle composition, driving behavior, and other random events. The average link travel time may
be described by the standard Bureau of Public Roads function, but the variance of travel time is proportional
to the link length and link volume. In this research, equivalent link disutility functions, corresponding to the
different route choice behavior in such a network, have been derived. The function for risk averse drivers, who
prefer a route with a longer average travel time but better travel time reliability (smaller travel time variance),
is of particular interest in this research. A method to conduct driver surveys so as to estimate the risk averse
coefficients of the equivalent link disutility function has been developed.
The two traffic assignment approaches developed in this project are for modeling the morning commute to
work, when drivers have to arrive at their destinations before their work-start time. With this constraint in
arrival time, travel time reliability becomes an important consideration when a risk averse driver selects his/her
route and/or departure time.
The first traffic assignment approach developed in this project is called traffic assignment with a fixed origin-
destination matrix. It assumes that the average driver in the network is risk averse in route choice, but the
departure time remains unchanged. The solution of this traffic assignment problem may be solved by any
standard user-equilibrium algorithm, by simply replacing the standard link performance function in the
deterministic network model with the equivalent link disutility function in our stochastic network model.
The second traffic assignment approach, called traffic assignment with departure time choice, considers both
driver’s route choice and departure time choice. The morning peak period is divided into smaller departure time
intervals, each with its own origin-destination matrix. An iterative procedure has been developed to (1) adjust
the origin-destination matrices to reflect the departure time choices of all the drivers; and (2) solve the user-
equilibrium traffic assignment problem for each departure time interval, with the incorporation of the equivalent
link disutility function that describes the risk averse behavior.
The two traffic assignment approaches have been tested with the El Paso network, with the corresponding
origin-destination matrices. A procedure to measure the network capacity reliability has also been developed
and its applications demonstrated with the El Paso network with existing and future scenarios.
The functions to assist in the implementation of the two traffic assignment approaches in Version 4.8 of
TransCAD, including the pre-processing of the input data and post-processing of the results, have been coded
into eight programs that are bundled in the Travel Time Reliability
Program Suite. The Travel Time Reliability Program Suite, its User’s Key Words:
Guide and sample data sets (which can be used for training workshops) travel time reliability, travel time
have been compiled in the accompanying DVD. uncertainty, traffic assignment, link
performance function, disutility
RMC 2 59
Utility Accommodation and Conflict Tracker (UACT)
0-5475-2 Installation and Configuration Manual
The Utility Accommodation and Conflict Tracker (UACT) system is a web-based prototype for the management
and tracking of utility conflicts. Key functionalities of UACT are listed below.
Utility Conflict Tracking - Department of Transportation (DOT) officials can enter utility conflict data based
on existing utility facility data and create visual representations of utility conflicts using a mapping component.
The prototype also provides an overview of the status of utility conflicts for each project.
Utility Agreement Development and Tracking - A utility company can complete the required forms of a utility
agreement online and file the document electronically for review by the appropriate district and division
personnel. The system guides the user through the completion process and selects appropriate forms based on
the specific circumstances of the utility conflict.
Document Upload and Conversion to Portable Document Format (PDF) - The prototype allows users to upload
documents that are accessible to other users based on roles and privileges. The prototype converts all documents
automatically to PDF to allow easy access to all privileged users.
Design and Construction Information System (DCIS) Project Data Access - The researchers designed the
prototype to connect to DCIS and display project data that are collected in a DCIS data warehouse.
Utility Facility Database Access - The researchers designed the prototype to integrate with a Geographic
Information System (GIS) based database of utility facility features.
Sophisticated User Access Model - UACT provides a sophisticated and flexible access system based on
capabilities, roles, and privileges. UACT administrators can further customize access to UACT by providing
individual users access to specific projects.
Key Words:
utility conflict, utility conflict
resolution, utility accommodation,
utility relocation, utility
reimbursement, utility adjustment,
utility coordination, utility
management, utility data
management, utility tracking
Utility Accommodation and Conflict Tracker (UACT) User

0-5475-3 Manual
The report details how users can access UACT, how UACT displays information, and how users can navigate
the interface. The report further provides an overview of UACT’s business areas and the actions that are
available to users in those business areas. Specifically, the report provides detailed guidance on how to import
project data, import utility facility data, add stakeholders to projects, manage UACT users and permissions,
upload and convert documents to PDF, create utility conflicts, create a utility agreement assembly, and create
reports based on UACT data.
RMC 2 60
Development of a Utility Conflict Management System
What findings led researchers to the development of UACT?
The utility coordination process creates a huge amount of data that involves a tremendous amount of
coordination between a multitude of stakeholders.
Detailed information of the utility coordination process is often undocumented, and resides with a large group
of stakeholders that must be interviewed to obtain the information.
The Business Process Model Notation was a more effective notation to obtain feedback from stakeholders about
business processes, as compared to the IDEF notation.
The review of TxDOT manuals revealed that, for the most part, it is difficult to relate tasks and activities
across manuals. TxDOT manuals do not share a common system to arrange or label tasks and activities, and
occasionally, there are significant differences between descriptions of the same activity in different manuals.
A shortage of information on sequence and dependencies of tasks is a limitation of the PDP Manual’s general
usefulness and for its use to develop a business process model.
A significant amount of utility information is either lost in the current process, too difficult to access, or not
effectively shared.
Notifications to Right of Way Sections about upcoming projects are critical to avoid process delays within
TxDOT, but notifications are not always provided.
Districts perceive the use of SUE as an overall effective mechanism to locate utilities that are only limited by
funds available for SUE. However, even SUE occasionally misses utilities made of clay-tile or other materials
that are not easily detectable using SUE techniques.
Local involvement in utility coordination activities can be a challenge for TxDOT, especially when an
LPA initially takes the lead in the utility coordination but then turns the lead over to TxDOT due to an
underestimation of the process complexity.
Minor project features such as sidewalks and bike trails can become major issues if they are only afterthoughts
and not addressed early in the process.
Districts have adopted local procedures and implemented local systems to deal with utility coordination issues.
Local district procedures can contribute to the complexity of the utility coordination process.
Databases and systems currently in use at TxDOT do not effectively support the utility coordination process,
which creates a need for the modification of existing systems or creation
of a new system such as UACT to provide essential support. Key Words:
utility conflict, utility conflict
resolution, utility accommodation,
utility relocation, utility
reimbursement, utility adjustment,
utility coordination, utility
management, utility data
management, utility tracking
RMC 2 61
An Analysis of the Value of Texas Seaports in an Environment of
0-5538-1 Increasing Global Trade
As a group, Texas ports impact approximately 950,000 jobs and over $48 billion in personal income, and create
$135 billion of economic value and over $5 billion of various taxes. The impact to the U.S. GDP of maintaining
the authorized depth on the Texas Gulf Intracoastal Waterway (GIWW) and shallow draft ports exceeded $217
million annually. The impact on the GDP for deep draft channels exceeded $900 million annually. Recent
trends (2001-2005) in Port of Houston activities have shown a sharp rise in container volumes. The volume of
containers processed by Texas deep-water port terminals could change substantially by 2020 if new terminals
are opened at other Texas locations.
This study illuminates the value to the nation of keeping the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway open and fully dredged,
in addition to the jobs, investments, and taxes also generated by the waterway activities. The cost of operating
a vessel is broadly fixed, so moving less cargo increases the average cost for moving each ton of cargo. This
raises the cost of serving the port. Industries could shift cargo to other ports, or shippers might use different
vessels, or even modes.
It appears that general equilibrium modeling offers relevant complementary data to traditional I/O approaches,
as well as insight on the national impacts of engineering, policy, and programming changes impacting U.S.
ports. USAGE-ITC holds promise in producing improved estimates of the impacts of large single projects or
U.S. trade policy changes. Finally, USAGE-ITC is also suited to evaluating non-maritime transportation policy
problems and can be applied to other modes, including truck, rail, air, and pipeline transportation.
The research study findings suggest that a general equilibrium model can be used to evaluate the national
impacts of maritime investments. The study outlines the process and provides results computed from a study
of selected Texas shallow draft waterways and deep draft waterways. These results reveal positive, measurable
economic impacts within an unusually robust framework and suggest that this method can provide effective
analyses of many policy issues relating to U.S. waterways. The results strongly suggest that general equilibrium
models in general, and the USAGE-ITC in particular, can be effectively applied to marine transportation
policy questions. Moreover, the results developed with this approach can complement the substantial body of
knowledge derived from the input-output methods now typically used to
Key Words:
measure port impacts in the United States.
Texas ports, siltation, dredging,
economic impacts, IMPLAN, I/O
RMC 2 62
Developing Sustainable Transportation Performance Measures
0-5541-1 for TxDOT’s Strategic Plan: Technical Report
This project produced 13 sustainable transportation performance measures. Researchers developed

methodologies for evaluating these measures based on readily available data inputs, and also defined a process
by which the measures could be benchmarked and combined into sustainability index values. The sustainability
index values are a set of numbers expressed on a scale from zero to one, which allows different corridors or
scenarios to be compared based on the performance measures.
Researchers developed a user-friendly calculator in Microsoft Excel® with an accompanying user manual. The
calculator can be used to generate the performance measure values and sustainability index values for a given
corridor. Based on the user inputs, the calculations can evaluate a base case scenario and multiple alternate
future scenarios.
Transportation agencies often struggle to assess sustainability in a way that is relevant to their everyday
functions. By linking sustainable transportation performance measures to an agency’s goals, the agency can
tailor the methodology to its specific needs. Thus, this research provides TxDOT with a valuable tool that can
help incorporate sustainability concerns into regular highway corridor planning activities. The performance
measurement framework will also be applicable to other transportation agencies seeking to develop their own
sustainable transportation evaluation methodologies.
Key Words:
performance measures,
sustainability, TxDOT, strategic
plan
Study Section Near Downtown San Antonio
RMC 2 63
Protecting and Preserving Rail Corridors Against Encroachment
0-5546-1 of Incompatible Uses
http://swutc.tamu.edu/publications/technicalreports/0-5546-1.pdf
In this report, the researchers provide a detailed assessment of corridor planning initiatives and practices both
in Texas and in other states. While the cases that were examined varied substantially, certain themes were
recurrent in a variety of disparate scenarios. These lessons, in the view of the researchers, will be useful as a
checklist both for aiding specific preservation activities and in formulating and refining the general strategy for
preservation within the state.
First, agencies must be ready to act politically and financially to acquire corridors as they become available.
The Utah Transit Agency’s purchase of UP’s corridor in Salt Lake City and the New Mexico DOT’s purchase
of BNSF corridor from Albuquerque to Santa Fe were examples of projects that suddenly arose and were
aggressively pursued by the agencies charged with implementing rail-transit options. In these two instances
the agencies showed commitment to the projects and dedicated critical staffing time to ensure their successful
fruition.
Second, the backing of political champions is often important for projects to come to fruition. The Salt Lake,
New Mexico, and Heartland Corridor (Virginia) projects all benefited from the advocacy of one or more
political leaders who were able to keep the flame burning on a particular project through multiple terms. For
example, the Governors in Utah and New Mexico offered financial support and the “full-faith-and-credit” of the
State as inducement for the freight railroads to continue with negotiations.
Third, regular and meaningful contact with the railroads—especially the Class I railroads—provides a
mechanism to outline and deal with issues as they arise. An open line of communication also puts the DOT in
the position of being the first agency called if the freight railroads are looking to divest themselves of property,
as seen in the case study of North Carolina. This gives the DOT a tremendous boost in providing transportation
options.
Fourth, long-term planning, including an inventory of assets at the state and local level, is critical for rail
preservation and development. Successful projects have often arisen from an inventory plan. Once states and
localities are aware of potential rail corridors, it is much easier to then review land use activity surrounding
corridors, in the same fashion as New Jersey, and to develop constructive working plans for revitalizing
corridors.
Finally, as in most projects, the ability to find adequate sources of financing is critical for preservation and
acquisition options. In many cases, the Class I railroads will not negotiate
sales or access rights unless they are assured that the “dollars are Key Words:
available and on the table.” corridor preservation,
encroachment, transit oriented
development, incompatible land
use, shared track, rail relocation
RMC 2 64
An Examination of Land Use Models, Emphasizing UrbanSim,
0-5667-1 TELUM, and Suitability Analysis
Unfortunately, existing land use models appear to be inadequately documented, and solutions to specification
questions are difficult to come by. For example, TELUM’s objective function (for parameter calibration)
remains something of a mystery, as do elements of its land-consumption functions. The same is true of
UrbanSim’s land development functions (for construction of new built space). PECAS documentation is
still evolving, and complete code is not presently available to the public. For these and other reasons, well
documented and highly transparent models (such as G-LUM) are valuable. Nevertheless, it appears difficult to
achieve perfectly reasonable performance from zone-based models over time, as zones can depopulate or grow
too fast. Many modifications to ITLUP’s base equations were made in order to “rein in” certain tendencies
evident via the G-LUM applications.
While UrbanSim and some others enjoy the property of strict controls on growth of total population and total
jobs (helping ensure these stay in balance), limited move tendencies (helping ensure zones do not depopulate
too quickly, for example), and demand for built space never able to exceed supply, the Austin UrbanSim
applications demonstrated strong centralizing tendencies (in both populations and jobs) that are inconsistent
with past trends and unlikely to emerge in practice, without significant changes in policy and/or behavioral
preferences. Moreover, the data demands and programming skills required by current and past versions of
UrbanSim appear excessive for the vast majority of regions, at least in the near term.
For these reasons, most MPOs may be very interested in making use of existing tools like TransCAD’s new
gravity-based land use model and land suitability analysis through ArcGIS, for subjectively scoring parcels or
grid cells (on the basis of proximity to nuisances, attractions, and sensitive sites, as a function of land use type)
and then allocating expected growth using simple rules. Whatever the approach, the opportunities to apply
(and enhance) existing data sets are many. The value of these and other modeling tools should be evident in the
multitude of information provided staff, decision makers, and public stakeholders across the state and around
the world, as they sort through the complex process of refining land use and transport policies for the local,
regional, and global challenges.
Key Words:
land use modeling, integrated
transportation-land use modeling,
suitability analysis, land use
planning and policy
RMC 2 65
Guidelines for Incorporating a Bus Rapid Transit Scenario into
0-5668-1 the Analysis of Texas Highway Corridors
The research team has examined what a BRT system should look like and the corridor selection issues. It was
found that a BRT system differs from a conventional bus service in running ways, stations, vehicles, service
patterns, route structure, fare collection, and ITS aspects.
Through literature review, it was found that the factors that should be incorporated into the BRT corridor
selection process include transit travel demand/land use analysis, arterial selection, road width and available
right-of-way, and layout of BRT lanes.
The most common benefit observed in the BRT system (relative to the conventional bus transit mode, and in
some way relative to other competing public and private transportation modes) is ridership attraction. This can
be achieved by the implementation, and preferentially, the combination of BRT distinctive elements: dedicated
guideway, ITS, enhanced shelters and stations, advance fare collection, bus signal priority, express services,
vehicle design, safety considerations, and others.
Based on the available technical documents, BRT shelters need to be built according to the forecasted passenger
demand. Moreover, intersections and access facilities might need satisfactory access control to allocate all
passenger flow and avoid boarding and alighting accidents. Pilot tests on selected lines may be needed to gather
user feedback to improve the design before full scale implementation.
The use of ITS technology increases safety and operating speed. Several elements such as precision docking,
bus signal priority and advanced fare collection are being used in BRT corridors mainly in the United States.
BRT vehicle selection should be supported by a feasibility study before its implementation. Vehicle design is
an extremely important factor for achieving the greatest possible number of benefits (e.g., high capacity, safety,
comfort, accessible), including those related to environmental protection conditions.
In terms of safety, one of the most common safety problems is the interaction between BRT vehicles and
pedestrians around at-grade intersections. A practical solution is the use of an at-grade pedestrian crossing.
Nevertheless, planners must be aware that corridor characteristics depend largely on local conditions. Thus,
the best solution should be the one that provides the best suitable environment after a detailed analysis and
evaluation.
Concentrating activities beside the BRT corridor (particularly at shelters and stations) might reduce the number
of passenger transfers depending on the characteristics of local demand, promote commercial activities, and
increase the land value in the corridor’s vicinity.
Researchers recommend three different deployment phases in the BRT planning process. Each phase has a
different level of BRT configurations (set of attributes) that corresponds to the degree of advancement in the
BRT life-time. The first proposed phase, called “limited,” includes basic elements that were identified as part of
the primary phase of construction in a BRT project. The second, “moderate,” consists of a more complete group
of characteristics that have specifically demonstrated an improvement in the system level of service. Finally
the third phase, “aggressive,” groups those key characteristics that provide high quality service or excellent
performance in terms of operation and comfort of the entire system. Factors that might influence the BRT
planning and decision making process are: level of funding, capital and operating costs, and public preferences.
A system dynamics (SD) modeling approach has been described and demonstrated as a means of providing a
framework for BRT phased implementation. The SD model has been
applied to an El Paso-based Mesa Corridor example. This and other case Key Words:
studies are included in this report. Bus Rapid Transit, BRT, highway
corridors
RMC 2 66
The Impacts of Port, Rail, and Border Drayage Activity in Texas
The study finds that the dray sector of Texas is in fundamental transition towards a profile more similar to over-
the-highway operations. The image of the dray driver as an exploited individual working for prices that do not
cover full costs is not typical in Texas. Vehicles are becoming safer, newer, and less polluting and do not, at
their current levels, contribute substantially to urban congestion.
There are common threads between the three groups of dray operations studied in this project. Compensation
is generally in the form of per delivery as opposed to per mile or hour. The average age of all vehicles was
approximately 9 years, with 500,000 miles on the odometer. Middle-aged drivers predominate and the average
age is 40. A majority had substantial driving experience, some of it gained from driving in other trucking
sectors. Drivers work around 50 hours a week and generally do not belong to a union. Finally, drivers are
generally satisfied with terminal efficiency, particularly at Barbours Cut where previous concerns (45 percent of
drivers) have been largely addressed by improvements to Barbours Cut Boulevard and a new gate system to the
POHA facilities.
Further research in the dray sector is being funded by other agencies, and their results should benefit both
TxDOT planning and the work undertaken in this study. The study was timely in that it helped stimulate a new
interest in the dray sector.
An area of future interest will be the exploration of social costs, linked perhaps to environmental justice issues
(EJ). EJ proponents do not always hold favorable views about dray operations and this work shines some
illumination on current and future practices.
One area of interest to TxDOT district planning is the estimation of VMT from easily obtained data such as
bridge crossing numbers and TEU throughput at deep water marine and inland rail intermodal terminals. The
study has demonstrated that TxDOT border districts can estimate a substantial portion of the VMT associated
with dray moves, and these estimates could be made more accurate through small scale surveys of the industry.
At the border, for example, dray trips can be estimated between city consolidation points (like warehouses),
other gateways along the border, and finally to inland metropolitan locations like San Antonio and Houston.
At marine terminals, the estimates might also be easily undertaken. The annual throughput—1.7 million TEU,
for example—must first be reduced by identifying the 40-ft container, which would place actual containers at
around 1 million. About 5 percent moves by rail leaving the rest to be taken by dray vehicles. If 60 percent is
local (40 miles), 30 percent regional (60 miles), and 10 percent long distance (100 miles), the total annual VMT
is 68 million. When divided by the number of days the terminal is open (255), this gives an estimate of 255,000
daily VMT. (This is simply an example to demonstrate the method.) This could be useful when planning the last
few miles to terminal gates where truck concentration could create delays and air quality degradation.
Finally, it is highly likely that dray operations will be less socially intrusive in the future as a result of combined
terminal/dray sector activities to mitigate delays and engine idling. Dray operators are more likely to adopt
technologies to raise efficiencies in concert with terminal gate systems, and the move to newer and cleaner
vehicles will reduce emissions. It is recommended that future EJ research takes this trend into account to more
accurately reflect actual dray operations and not the view still held by many in the media and those critical of
trucking in general.
Key Words:
Texas, dray vehicles, urban
container moves, DrayFLEET,
border VMT, Houston, Tex-Mex
border, intermodal surveys
RMC 2 67
Archiving, Sharing, and Quantifying Reliability of Traffic Data
In past experience, the barriers to successfully implementing data sharing are primarily institutional rather than
technological. Additionally, the researchers successfully created a working archive on a small scale, indicating
feasibility of this type of system. Therefore, it is crucial to clearly explain the benefits of such a system, and to
design it with all of the involved parties in mind.
In developing the prototype system, the best way to handle input data from different types of detectors (and to
ensure flexibility regarding future technological developments) was to develop a common data format and to
standardize all incoming data. From the standpoint of maximizing the archive’s value for multiple applications,
a PostgreSQL database was found to be extremely useful, since it interfaces well with other programming
languages, allowing easy generation of application-specific reports.
Reliability and quality were also identified as major issues in ensuring the credibility of archived data. The
researchers found that by applying three different kinds of checks, suspicious data could be identified with
greater accuracy. Statistical techniques for estimating missing data were found to function well, especially when
further aggregation occurs, as when adding an entire day’s worth of volume counts to calculate AADT.
Given the technical feasibility of implementing a data archive, as illustrated by the prototype system, and
given the potential benefits of a rich data source to transportation planners, operations personnel, and others,
the advantages of implementing a shared archive should be evident. Additionally, the researchers’ tests showed
that statistical techniques can be used to “fill in” missing data with a high level of accuracy, especially when
generating daily volume counts. Although institutional barriers may still
Key Words:
exist, the future outlook for this type of data sharing is bright, and there
traffic data archiving, intelligent
are significant benefits that can be reaped.
transportation systems, data
reliability, data imputation
Predicted Counts for all Short Period Traffic

Counts (SPTC) Sites in 2006: Counts Range
From 54-2,459 (Lightest Yellow) to 70,852-
103,948 (Darkest Brown)
RMC 2 68
Analysis and Integration of Spatial Data for Transportation
0-5696-1 Planning
This research resulted in a catalog of spatial data sources available to transportation planning agencies in Texas.
The work included a synthesis of current transportation planning practices in Texas with a focus on spatial data
integration and exchange issues, meetings with transportation planning and data stakeholders, the development
of a map of data sources, the development of a preliminary logical data model of spatial data entities, and a
compilation of metadata documents for a sample of data sources.
Developing the catalog of categories and subcategories for transportation planning spatial data was an iterative
process that involved several rounds of data entity categorization; analysis of the resulting structure for
inconsistencies, gaps, and redundancies; and subsequent changes to the data entity categorization scheme. In the
end, the three-level grouping structure resulted in 7 categories, 63 subcategories, and 589 spatial data entities.
The research also resulted in a prototype web-based map and metadata viewer called Transportation Planning
GIS (TPGIS) Data Viewer.
Key Words:
transportation planning, spatial
data, GIS, Geographic Information
Systems, Global Positioning
System, metadata
Statewide Planning Map Web Interface
RMC 2 69
Right of Way Real Property Asset Management – Prototype Data
0-5788-1 Architecture
TxDOT uses a variety of information systems to support right of way processes, including the Design and
Construction Information System (DCIS), the Right of Way Information System (ROWIS), Right of Way
Map Locator, and Survey Primary Control Markers. In particular, ROWIS enables users to capture, track, and
report data related to the right of way acquisition process. However, ROWIS provides little support for the
management and inventory of right of way assets after the conclusion of the acquisition process. In addition,
ROWIS does not have the functionality to display (or to provide a link to) right of way parcels on a map.
Further, ROWIS handles encumbrances, e.g., easements, as an acquisition interest code, which prevents users
from easily visualizing the location and spatial extent of those encumbrances.
The review of practices at other agencies included examples of parcel data modeling efforts at the national
level, as well as right of way asset management practices and plans at 11 state departments of transportation.
Although several states still use paper-based procedures or rely on mainframe legacy systems, in most cases
states are in the process of modernizing or updating their right of way information systems. Some states
rely on desktop databases and other applications for specific right of way related processes. Some states are
also incorporating GIS-based mapping components into their right of way management systems. The use of
document management systems to support right of way functions is also increasing.
For the development of the prototype right of way asset data model, the researchers took into consideration
parcels, property rights, and encumbrances separately, while enabling linkages through procedures such as
regular many-to-many relationships and spatial overlays. The model also took into consideration four types of
data needed for managing right of way assets, data about features on the ground (normally on the state right
of way), data about right of way asset documents, data about projects, and data about users who may need to
interact with features, documents, or projects.
The researchers used three different environments to test the right of way asset data model: standalone database,
standalone GIS application, and web based. The standalone database and GIS testing environments focused on
basic database design and relationship testing using a variety of “ready-made” tools that expedited the testing
process. The web-based testing environment focused on the examination of implementation and integration
issues with other systems and on the demonstration of the model performance using an online interface (which
proved useful during discussions with TxDOT officials when issues such as model implementation, portability,
and functionality were raised). Recommendations for implementation include the following.
Ιmplement a strategy for a permanent repository of electronic files that supports right of way asset management
plans effectively.
Ιmplement strategies to populate a right of way asset GIS database, and modify the Right of Way document
class in FileNet®.
Αdd standardized certification and disclaimer text labels to geospatial documents.
Μodify Form ROW-MapCheck to address electronic file delivery requirements.
Require the submission of right of way feature data in GIS format.
Update ROWIS to support modernization initiatives at the Right of Way Key Words:
Division. right of way, asset management,
real property, parcel acquisition
RMC 2 70
Understanding and Managing the Movements of Hazardous
0-5929-1 Material Shipments Through Texas Population Centers
The public is largely unaware of their coexistence with hazardous materials on a daily basis. Most urban centers
are developed around industrial sites, where the jobs were located. That placed many neighborhoods relatively
close to these sites. The expansion of urban areas has also placed populations in close proximity to facilities that
use or produce hazardous materials.
However, hazardous materials are not only located at industrial sites but also in our homes in small quantities, at
the corner fuel center, and at local water treatment facilities, amongst others. The Transportation Research Board
reports that there are over 150,000 service stations in the U.S. that receive motor fuel for distribution to the
public. Most of these service stations are located at the entrances of our neighborhoods.
Generally, hazmat will pass—and in most cases must pass—by and through communities to reach the ultimate
consumer. Neighborhood service stations, urban industrial sites, and public facilities, such as water treatment
plants, are often the ultimate consumer of hazardous materials. Additionally, the transportation networks in
Texas and the U.S. were designed to serve the urban centers, leaving the major highways and rail lines passing
through the urban areas. In most cases, there are few, if any, desirable alternative routes that bypass population
centers. As both a major producer and major consumer of hazardous materials, Texas experiences high levels of
hazardous materials transport over the entire transportation system.
Many actions to reduce the risk or improve safety exist or are possible in various ways. This research identified
several ways in which community, regional, and statewide planners can address the movements of hazardous
materials. Some are directly related to hazardous materials managements, such as designating a hazardous
materials route, while others are tools that can be used to address hazardous material shipments in different
ways, such as altering the water purification process to utilize less hazardous chemicals. Ultimately, specific
community, regional, and statewide concerns will guide the approach or approaches utilized to address hazardous
material shipments through communities and urban areas. The guidebook developed as part of this research is
designed to present the approaches to address concerns related to the transport of hazardous materials in Texas.
Freight planning initiatives nationally and statewide are enhancing and will continue to enhance safe and
efficient movement of hazardous materials. Increased national and statewide interest in planning for freight
within the transportation planning process will promote more efficient and safe movement of freight on our
transportation system, thus promoting more efficient and safe movement of hazardous materials. Nationally,
recently implemented research programs specifically look at improving freight operations and freight planning;
including the Hazardous Materials Cooperative Research Program (HMCRP) that specifically addresses research
on hazardous materials topics. Furthermore, in order to better understand the movement of hazardous materials
nationally, the 2007 Commodity Flow Survey has expanded its hazardous materials coverage over past surveys.
In Texas, a legislative directive resulted in the examination of relocating shipments of hazardous materials by
rail to new infrastructure out of the major urban areas. Additionally, TxDOT has undertaken a comprehensive
evaluation of freight rail operations in several urban areas and regions throughout the state. Many more efforts
have addressed freight transportation by all the major modes.
National and state hazard management activities provide a good framework for agencies to work together
to reduce all hazard risks, including hazardous materials. The development of the Department of Homeland
Security, along with statewide directives, have placed an emphasis on multi-level coordination and planning
for hazards, including hazardous materials. These efforts are designed to decrease the likelihood of a hazardous
event, along with reacting effectively once an event has occurred. This
framework and continued development of multi-level relationships will Key Words:
only improve the safety of communities. hazardous materials
RMC 2 71
Potential Policies and Incentives to Encourage Movement of
0-5937-1 Containerized Freight on Texas Inland Waterways
The state should take an active role in controlling any waterfront development along the GIWW that would
encroach on the navigable waterway or encourage more recreational activity in the waterway itself. As a
rule, the general public does not understand the maneuverability constraints inherent in barge operations.
Encouraging unnecessary interaction between recreational users and commercial users simply increases the
likelihood of a serious incident. Restricting the “right-of-way” in which barges can maneuver also decreases the
effective capacity of the waterway and increases transit times. As local sponsor for the GIWW, TxDOT must
actively discourage any development that would decrease capacity or increase operating costs unnecessarily.
The state can assist ports and potential operators with localized and statewide market studies to identify and
pursue emerging markets. The state should fund research which will identify the origin and final destination of
cargo that originates in Texas or is imported into the state. It should also analyze traffic flows between the state’s
ports and the Mexican border. TxDOT, possibly in cooperation with other state agencies and local and regional
economic development agencies, should work to identify niche markets and promote the use of public port
facilities.
The state should actively participate in promoting awareness of Texas marine ports and terminals and the
potential benefits of marine transportation. Additionally, a statewide marketing promotion effort could identify
public policy options for maritime development, build stakeholder coalitions with other states (especially states
along the GIWW), and promote national waterways agendas.
Marine carriers can handle containers and general cargoes that greatly exceed the limits for Texas highways.
TxDOT should work with Texas port authorities to identify potential overweight corridors that would enable
shippers to take advantage of the load capacities that water offers without damaging the state’s highways.
Planners for such corridors should take into account the concentration of freight movements in the area and the
landside transportation patterns for freight.
Instituting Air Quality Credits in the United States (or at least in Texas), would allow all modes and types
of equipment to compete on an equal footing for funding or emission credits and would reduce the overall
environmental burden caused by freight movements.
Requiring a higher percentage of cost recovery from the larger trucks will have the practical effect of inserting
the true cost to the public into the mode selection process of shippers. This will most likely result in more
waterborne shipments.
Research shows that growth in water transportation has the potential to benefit Texas and that the state can take
steps in the near term to improve the competitiveness of waterborne transportation in order to take unnecessary
trucks off of the highway network. Furthermore, many of these actions should involve the active participation of
the Texas Department of Transportation.
Key Words:
Short Sea Shipping (SSS),
coastwise, Texas ports, Gulf
Intracoastal Waterway, GIWW,
marine highways, freight, marine,
waterborne
RMC 2 72
Characterization of In-Use Emissions From TxDOT’s Non-Road
0-5955-1 Equipment Fleet – Phase 1 Report
The objective of this report is to present the preliminary findings of the study characterizing in-use TxDOT
non-road diesel equipment emissions. This report presents literature reviews of emissions reduction
technologies and emissions control measures practiced by Texas and other states, discusses selection of TxDOT
non-road equipment and emissions reduction technologies for emissions testing, and shows preliminary results
of in-use emissions of TxDOT diesel equipment using portable emissions measurement systems (PEMS).
Emissions measurements and data comparison and analysis tasks are still ongoing, so that a stage for any final
recommendation or conclusion has not been reached.
In Phase I researchers designated graders and rubber-tire loaders for the primary non-road equipment category
and excavators as the secondary category.
Also in Phase I, tests on 4 graders showed that NOx emissions rates were highest during the task of driving at
maximum speed, and lowest during the idle task. NOx emissions rates during leveling were usually lower than
those during driving at 20 mph, but were always higher than those during backup.
Calculated emission rates were higher than measured ones during any of the testing tasks, including driving at
maximum speed. However, these findings are not conclusive yet. Much more data is expected in phase II of this
project.
Key Words:
non-road equipment, TxDOT
diesel equipment, grader,
Grader Blade Position in Forward (Left) and Backward (Right)
Movements
rubber tire loader, excavator,
exhaust emissions, NOx,
emissions reduction, PEMS
testing
RMC 2 73
Financing Tools for Rural and Small Urban Area Projects
The focus of this research was on financing tools and partnerships between TxDOT and local agencies to
advance rural and small urban area projects. It was seen that there are a variety of options for upfront financing
of local projects, and alternative ways to pay for those projects. In partnerships, each party expects to gain
specific benefits, and an explicit estimate of these benefits is necessary in order to have an equitable contract.
Similarly, each project has risks, and these need to be evaluated and equitably shared.
In this research, case studies of partnerships between TxDOT and other entities, especially Pass-Through Toll
Agreements, were conducted. From these case studies, several key lessons were learned. Four significant
conclusions and recommendations that can be drawn from this research are: 1) Understand project financing
and revenue issues, 2) Select the right projects for partnerships, 3) Select appropriate financing tools, and 4)
Conduct a formal analysis of project benefits.
In-depth review of the case studies shows that TxDOT is still in the learning phase of partnering, especially on
rural and small urban area projects. Other lessons learned from the case studies are: 1) Explain the process.
The districts found that it would benefit all the parties involved in partnership projects to have as much
knowledge of the transportation project development process as possible, 2) Develop and maintain
relationships. Several districts mentioned that a good working relationship with the local government was
important when considering a partnership for a project, 3) Designate a leader and meet regularly. Several
districts said that their experience would have been smoother if the roles and responsibilities of each entity
were clearly defined early on, 4) Set realistic schedules, 5) Negotiate the details. In negotiating an agreement,
it is important that all the details are clearly presented, to avoid disputes that could occur, and to ensure a good
working relationship, and 6) Be flexible.
Key Words:
rural and small urban area
transportation projects, financing
tools, planning tools, partnerships,
passthrough toll agreements, cost
and benefit analysis.
RMC 2 74
Safety and
Operations
results
RMC 4
RMC 4 - Safety and Operations
Focus Areas
• Geometric Design
• Illumination Pavement Marking
• Railroad Crossing Safety
• Roadside Safety
• Roadway Signing & Delineation
• Traffic Control Devices
• Traffic Management & Operations
• Work Zone Safety
RMC 4 75
Evaluation of Traffic Control Devices: Fifth-Year Activities
A driver survey on dual logos for specific services signs, i.e., two logos in the same panel, did not indicate a
need to prohibit dual logos.
Flashing beacons mounted on the back of School Speed Limit assemblies, facing drivers that are still within the
school zone, can help remind drivers of the reduced speed limit.
A red border added to a Speed Limit sign can help improve conspicuity of the sign and increase driver
awareness of the lowered speed limit.
Tests of a proposed temporary sign support structure for work zone signs indicated that the support design
needed changes. Once these changes were made, the structure passed the crash test and received Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA) approval.
An extinguishable left-turn yield sign for signalized intersections (“LEFT TURN YIELD” during the permissive
portion of the phase; dark during the red, yellow, and protected portions of the phase) could reduce left-turn
crashes at intersections.
The retroreflectivity of an experimental lead-free thermoplastic pavement marking was comparable to that of
the standard TxDOT leaded material.
Mobile retroreflectometers performed as well as traditional handheld devices in measuring the performance of
pavement marking retroreflectivity.
In a limited field test, retroreflective sheeting placed on the backplates Key Words:
of traffic control signals did not improve the visibility of signal heads. traffic control devices, no-passing
zones, pedestrian countdown timers,
thermoplastic pavement markings
Lead-Free Thermoplastic Installation
RMC 4 76
Incorporating Safety into the Highway Design Process:
0-4703-6 Fifth-Year Report
To achieve further improvement in highway safety, it will be necessary to focus on design policies and
technologies that: (1) reduce the likelihood of a crash and (2) reduce the severity of the crashes that occur. The
use of safety evaluation tools in the design process is one way to accomplish these goals.
Safety-conscious design represents the explicit evaluation of the safety consequences associated with design
alternatives. In 1999, the Transportation Association of Canada incorporated safety conscious design in its
design guide for new location and reconstruction projects (i.e., the Geometric Design Guide for Canadian
Roads). The justification offered for this change was the observation that the traditional approach to design had
become less dependent on experience and judgment and more dependent on adherence to minimum criteria.
As stated in the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) document,
Highway Safety Design and Operations Guide, “[The use of] minimum design criteria may not ensure adequate
levels of safety in all situations.”
Safety-conscious design involves the use of safety prediction models and economic principles to evaluate the
benefits and costs of design alternatives. In recognition of the time
required for this evaluation, it is often reserved for more complex design Key Words:
conditions or those that involve higher construction costs. highway safety, highway design,
safety management, geometric
design
Pictures from 0-4703-P4 Interim Roadway Safety

Design Workbook
RMC 4 77
An Assessment of Yield Treatments at Frontage Road-Exit Ramp
0-4986-1 and Frontage Road-U-Turn Merge Areas
Results showed that with respect to both traffic operations performance (total delays in network) as well as
safety (surrogate safety crashes in models), Category 1 (exit ramp has own lane, double/single solid line, no
YIELD sign), Category 1A (exit ramp has own lane, no double/single solid line, no YIELD sign), and Category
2 (frontage road drops lane prior to exit ramp gore, exit ramp has own lane, double/single solid line, no YIELD
sign) performed the best.
Category 3 (featuring a forced merge of exit ramp with frontage road) and Category 6 (featuring a short
deceleration lane for the exit ramp) treatments consistently produced the worst overall performance in terms of
operations and safety.
Categories 1, 1A, and 2 (exit ramp has own lane with or without DO NOT CROSS DOUBLE WHITE LINE
and without YIELD sign) treatments consistently performed the best.
Generally, YIELD signs caused increased delays and were not found to increase safety.
Retrofitting all current Category 3 and 6 treatment options to Category 2 is recommended to provide uniformity
for drivers and consistency for Texas Department of Transportation districts.
Provision of a continuous lane for U-turning traffic will result in better operation and safety.
The addition of a YIELD sign did not appear to improve safety when an acceleration lane was provided for the
U-Turn traffic.
Further analysis will be required to explore the impacts of other geometric limitations, such as grade, on the
yielding behavior of drivers. It might also be necessary to perform a
Key Words:
similar analysis on driver yielding behavior in other states as driver
exit ramps, frontage roads,
behavior and comprehension of yielding might vary from state to state.
U-Turns, yield treatment, weaving
Example of Preferred Treatment

with Frontage Road Lane
Terminated Prior to Exit Ramp
RMC 4 78
Development of Frontage Road Yield Treatment Analysis Tool
0-4986-2 (FRYTAT) Database Software
FRYTAT was developed primarily to provide an easy way of presenting the results of project 0-4986. More
importantly, researchers envision that FRYTAT will provide TxDOT with an easy-to-use tool to provide fairly
quick answers for yielding treatments at the numerous exit ramp and frontage roads as well as U-Turn and
frontage road merge areas within the state of Texas.
The results provided by FRYTAT for selected combinations of traffic volumes, driveway densities, and
geometry configurations should be coupled with TxDOT’s Signing Handbook to provide the user with real
solutions to yield signing for the concerned location. Detailed data collection is recommended but not needed to
use FRYTAT since ranges of volumes are used in the analysis and generally a good estimate of volumes should
be enough to provide a fairly accurate result.
The results provided by FRYTAT do not incorporate the effects of limited sight distance issues, particularly with
the presence of a horizontal or vertical curvature. In such instances, it is recommended that the user perform an
engineering assessment of the situation and use engineering judgment for the best results. Such instances might
require a STOP sign on the frontage road or the use of a YIELD sign.
Key Words:
exit ramps, frontage roads,
U-Turns, yield treatment, weaving
Example of the use of Both a

YIELD Sign and a Double White
Line
RMC 4 79
Development of Measures to Improve Field Performance of
0-5089-1 Retroreflective Raised Pavement Markers
Performance of RRPM products has a wide range. The quality and performance of an RRPM product is related
to marker model, materials, and technologies used.
Performance (physical condition and retroreflectivity) of RRPM products also depends on traffic volume, truck
traffic, and pavement surface type. Retroreflectivity degrading is directly related to ADT. High truck traffic
significantly deteriorates marker physical condition. It deteriorates more rapidly on a concrete surface, but some
models perform poorer on a flexible surface due to cracking of the marker case.
No marker models were found to withstand high traffic volumes beyond one year on high traffic roadways such
as I-610 in Houston.
On low traffic roads such as FM 230 in the Lufkin District, several marker brands displayed reasonable
physical condition and retroreflectivity level at the end of the two-year evaluation period.
There is a correlation between marker physical condition and retroreflectivity values. From field observation,
marker damage, especially damage to the lens surface and lens interior, is directly related to the deterioration of
retroreflectivity.
Marker retention is directly related to installation quality. Poor installation was observed during field visits,
while installation quality was high at all four field decks. No significant marker loss problems were reported in
several TxDOT districts on the field decks.
Constrained by the markers currently available on the market, researchers did not find any “super” marker that
could last for more than three years on high traffic roads.
Existing lab testing methods do not produce results consistent with field performance. All RRPM products
passed ASTM tests, but their performance varied considerably.
Many of the existing lab tests and the new lab tests developed and evaluated in this project failed to produce
consistent results and could not correlate with field performance.
There is a critical need to emphasize the quality of RRPM installation because it is directly related to their
retention and performance in the field. Installation quality can be improved by enhancing TxDOT inspection
or adopting warranty specifications that require the contractor to replace missing markers within a certain time
from the installation.
TxDOT’s current RRPM replacement schedule is reasonable for the products currently available on the market.
Based on the performance of the marker brands evaluated in this project, on high traffic interstates, markers
should be replaced yearly. On low traffic roadways, markers can be replaced every two or three years.
The researchers also recommend conducting the pendulum impact test Key Words:
for the purpose of marker qualification and quality control. raised pavement markers,
retroreflectivity, durability, lab tests
RMC 4 80
Analysis of a Flexible Bridge Rail System for High-Speed
0-5210-4 Roadways
The T6 tubular W-beam bridge rail has seen widespread use across the state of Texas. However, because it was
unable to satisfy TL-3 impact performance requirements of NCHRP Report 350, it is no longer eligible for use
on high-speed roadways. A new, flexible bridge rail system, referred to herein as the T8 rail, has been designed
as a replacement for the T6 rail in high-speed applications.
The T8 incorporates a tubular thrie beam rail element. Use of a tubular thrie beam provides additional rail
height that improves stability for light truck vehicles. Compared with the tubular W-beam, the tubular thrie
beam rail has a reduced clear opening that minimizes the potential for vehicle underride. Additionally, use of the
thrie beam rail, which is an industry standard rail shape, facilitates the transition to the approach guardrail using
“off-the-shelf” components.
The anchor bolt pattern or “footprint” for the T8 post is the same as that used for the T6 post. This facilitates
upgrade of existing T6 installations. As with the T6 system, the posts in the T8 rail are designed to breakaway to
prevent vehicle snagging and control deck damage. Two different post configurations were evaluated for use in
the T8 rail. One incorporates ½-inch weakening slots similar to the post used in the T6 rail. The other has longer
7/8-inch weakening slots to further reduce the lateral capacity of the post for applications on very thin deck
structures.
It is recommended that full-scale crash testing be conducted to verify the impact performance of the T8 bridge
rail. The TL-3 test matrix for longitudinal barriers in NCHRP Report 350 includes two tests: test designations
3-10 and 3-11. Test 3-10 involves an 1800-lb passenger car impacting the barrier at a speed of 62 mi/hr and an
angle of 20 degrees. Test 3-11 involves a 4409-lb pickup truck impacting the rail at a speed of 62 mi/hr and an
angle of 25 degrees. Since use of the tubular thrie beam rail eliminates vehicle underride as an issue, test 3-10 is
not considered necessary. Compliance with NCHRP Report 350 can, therefore, be satisfactorily evaluated with
test 3-11.
Many of the applications for the T8 rail are expected to be on thin bridge decks and culverts. Therefore, the
version recommended for full-scale crash testing is the system that incorporates posts with the longer 7/8-inch
weakening slots. This configuration is designed for use on decks as thin as 6.5 inches and having a compressive
strength of 3000 psi or greater. If the full-scale crash test is successful,
Key Words:
the new T8 bridge rail can be implemented on a state-wide basis
bridge rail, W-Beam guardrail,
through development of a new standard detail sheet.
Tubular Thrie Beam, concrete deck
cantilever, steel post, finite analysis,
simulation, modeling, roadside
safety, crash testing
New Post Connection Design
RMC 4 81
NCHRP Report 350 Test 3-11 of the Modified T8 Bridge Rail
Despite these modifications to the rail system, the posts once again failed the thin concrete deck prior to
breakaway activation. Localized deformation of the tubular thrie beam rail permitted the lowest rail corrugation
to contact the post and reduce the moment arm despite the presence of the 1-inch thick offset block.
Because the posts did not release from their baseplates as designed, their rotation lowered the rail height and
permitted snagging of the wheel of the pickup truck. These behaviors combined to destabilize the pickup
truck, causing it to roll as it exited the barrier. Consequently, the modified T8 bridge rail is not suitable for
implementation in its present form.
Prior to highway implementation, the T8 will need to be further modified and successfully retested.
Recommendations for modifying the T8 rail include using a deeper offset block between the posts and upper
two corrugations of the tubular thrie beam and possibly further increasing the length of the breakaway slots in
the front tension flange of the W6x8.5 steel posts. To prevent the deeper offset block from reducing available
deck space for travel lanes, the posts can be fabricated with an offset such that the traffic face of the posts
extend beyond the edge of the deck. This would enable the rail to retain its current deck footprint while
increasing the depth of the offset block to make certain that the lower corrugation of the tubular thrie beam
rail will not contact the post. Preventing this contact will ensure a point of load application consistent with the
breakaway design of the post as demonstrated in previous dynamic pendulum tests.
Another potential solution that can be pursued through additional research is replacing the tubular thrie beam
rail with one or more tubular structural steel rails. The point of load application on the breakaway posts would
be controlled by the mounting height of the tubular rail(s). Two options exist for this type of design. The first
concept utilizes two narrow tubular rails inserted into the valleys of a thrie beam rail in a manner similar to the
T101 bridge rail. The tubular rails would provide the needed offset between the posts and thrie beam rail, and
would control the height of load application to the posts.
In the second concept, wider tubular rails are used to provide more contact surface for vehicle interaction
and to eliminate the need for the outer thrie beam rail. The rail would
Key Words:
incorporate features of other tubular rail systems but would retain the
bridge rail, W-Beam guardrail,
breakaway post feature for application on thin deck structures.
Tubular Thrie Beam, concrete deck
cantilever, steel post, finite analysis,
simulation, modeling, roadside
safety, crash testing
Testing a Bridge Rail System
RMC 4 82
Use of Graphics and Symbols on Dynamic Message Signs:
0-5256-1 Technical Report
Graphic display formats range from all-encompassing regional map displays that are able to provide an
overview of the roadway system in an entire metropolitan area (sometimes referred to as a graphic route
information panel, or GRIP) down to individual symbols that are used to identify a specific problem
immediately downstream of the motorist’s current location. Data collected in this project suggests that motorist-
desired viewing times for a GRIP format display are significantly higher than for text or other graphic displays
evaluated during this project. Therefore, researchers have a significant concern that the amount of information
presented through this display format could overload drivers.
The other major format type that was evaluated through this project was the use of DMSs to portray a localized
portion of a roadway. Overall, this type of display appears to be interpreted fairly well by drivers and does
not appear to result in higher information loading than text-based DMS messages conveying similar types
and amounts of information. However, the research suggests that these types of graphic displays may provide
additional information benefits as compared to equivalent text messages.
A graphic display appears to improve the ability of drivers to identify available lanes in a problem area.
The delivery of incident descriptor information (e.g., accidents or work zones) through the use of graphic
symbols improves comprehension levels of non-native-language drivers (e.g., a driver whose primary language
is Spanish).
The viewing time required for comprehension by a non-native speaker may be shortened as a result of the use of
graphics and symbols.
The use of graphics makes it possible to effectively illustrate unusual operational scenarios, such as high-
occupancy vehicle lanes or adjacent toll lanes, through graphic representation of roadway geometry, logos,
shields, etc.
Based on this research, graphic DMS displays appear capable of providing an effective means of
communicating with the motoring public. If used, graphic displays should follow some basic design guidelines
identified in this research.
Highway shields and signs should use standard formats (as defined in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices) and should be displayed when necessary to identify a roadway. This recommendation also holds true
for using familiar toll facility logos and signing where appropriate.
Highway shields or road names should be placed on the roadway and not above or beside its graphic
representation.
When displaying traffic condition information using colors, the following coding is recommended: red = stop
and go conditions, yellow = slow conditions, green = normal operating speed.
Arrows should be shown in all open lanes to reinforce which lanes are available for use past a problem area.
Only one cross street or highway should be represented graphically on a given display. All other critical points,
such as incident location or exit information, should be given as text.
If a toll facility is shown on the graphic display, drivers will assume

they will need to pay a toll to use that road unless otherwise specifically Key Words:
stated. Dynamic Message Sign, changeable
message sign, graphics, symbols
RMC 4 83
Operations-Oriented Performance Measures for Freeway
0-5292-2 Management Systems: Final Report
The selection framework detailed in this report improves on earlier research by facilitating the constrained
selection of freeway operational performance measures. The process allows decision makers to generate
candidate solutions and criteria before using both qualitative and quantitative performance thresholds, and
reduce the possibilities to a set of feasible alternatives.
The use of MCDMs provides an opportunity for the decision makers to evaluate the tradeoffs across the
different criteria. The decision makers must select the appropriate weighting techniques or MCDMs based on
the complexity of their problem or the required results because each technique and MCDM has both strengths
and limitations. The proposed criteria and application framework provides the guidelines for future applications
by TxDOT. The successful implementation of the proposed methodology requires complete and engaged
participation from the decision makers.
Implementation of this research will use actual decision maker input to generate realistic criteria and their
weights. Additionally, decision maker input is required to establish the proper performance thresholds. Testing
the process with decision maker participation will facilitate revision of the framework to fully meet TxDOT
needs. After using this framework for selecting operational freeway performance measures, it can be modified
so that it is able to evaluate different operational strategies and recommend alternatives for selection. This future
improvement is critical for the selection of operational alternatives in real-time
Key Words:
based on their associated performance measures.
performance measurement,
operations, emissions
Performance Measurement Process
RMC 4 84
Development of Criteria and Guidelines for Installing, Operating,
0-5294-1 and Removing TxDOT Ramp Control Signals
The Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) uses ramp control signals (also called ramp meters or flow
signals) to control the rate at which vehicles enter the freeway. This helps TxDOT: 1) promote a more consistent
and uniform flow of traffic entering the freeway, and 2) promote a more efficient use of the existing freeway
capacity.
The purpose of this project was to develop guidelines and criteria to assist TxDOT decision makers in
determining when and where to install new ramp control signals and remove existing ramp control signals when
they no longer provide a benefit to freeway traffic. This report documents the process, procedures, and research
used to develop those guidelines and criteria.
Key Words:
ramp meter, ramp control
signal, warrant,
operational guidelines
Data Logger System
RMC 4 85
Traffic Control Strategies for Congested Freeways and Work
0-5326-2 Zones
The number of vehicle conflicts observed at 2 study sites decreased after a queue warning system was deployed
and activated. At the study site on IH 610, the need for sudden braking to avoid rear-end collisions was reduced
by 7%, forced lane changes by 5%, and other erratic maneuvers by 3%. For the same type of vehicle conflicts
the reductions at the study site on US 59 were less significant, between 2% and 3%.
The variance of speed was significantly reduced at both sites, indicating an improvement in the uniformity
of speeds in the vehicle stream. The more uniform speed distribution resulted in reduced rear-end collision
potential and safer traffic operations. Safety evaluation of the queue warning system based on accident history
requires a much longer time period than that available in this research project. No final conclusion may be
drawn based on the limited amount of accident data that were available.
Based on the simulation results it may be concluded that the optimal results (in terms of minimum queue
spillback, minimum increase in density, minimum reduction in speed, and minimum acceleration, all at the
freeway upstream of the Hawkins exit ramp) occurred when 20% of the vehicles were diverted from the
freeway main lanes on to the alternative route. The analysis of queue lengths at both exit ramps showed that
the spillback at the Hawkins exit ramp is of a smaller magnitude with higher percentage of diversion. Despite
the improvement on the freeway, queue length increased at the Hawkins intersection, causing slower queue
spillback dissipation at the exit ramp and on the frontage road. As for the McRae exit ramp, the increase in
queue length is minimal and therefore there is no queue spillback onto the freeway.
The density upstream of the Hawkins exit ramp increased with queue growth from the exit ramp onto the right-
most lane of the freeway. The density decreased when traffic was diverted to the alternative route (McRae exit
ramp). The reduction in density is directly proportional to the diversion. As expected, the change in density is
more significant in the right-most lane compared to other freeway lanes. The density upstream of the McRae
exit ramp did not have significant variation with and without the diversions.
Speed and acceleration were the other two performance measures analyzed. Upstream of the Hawkins exit
ramp, speed started to drop when the queue formed in the right-most lane of the freeway. The reduction in speed
is the least significant when 20% diversion was simulated. Upstream of the McRae exit ramp, the different
diversion percentages had almost no impact on speed for the entire simulation. As for acceleration, the average
acceleration upstream of the Hawkins exit ramp decreased with increasing diversion. Our results also showed
that upstream of the McRae off ramp there is no noticeable change in the acceleration with and without the
diversions.
It was envisioned that the Dynamic Merge would be field tested in a freeway work zone in Texas. However, an
appropriate work zone site for field evaluation was not available within the timeframe of the research project.
Therefore, the Dynamic Merge concept was evaluated based on traffic simulations. The objective of the
simulation study was to determine the type of work zone configurations where the Dynamic Merge is expected
to work well and provide benefits relative to the conventional work zone traffic control.
It was found that the Dynamic Merge would probably not work as intended in several of the lane closure
configurations considered in this study. It is expected to work well in only three cases from the ten lane closure
scenarios considered.
Key Words:
A Field Guide was developed to aid construction personnel and area engineers traffic control, queue warning,
in using appropriate queue warning techniques and the Dynamic Merge control merge control, work zone
for congested freeways.
RMC 4 86
Speeds in School Zones
A review of existing practices in all states revealed guidance ranging from no material to detailed numerical
criteria that warrant a school speed zone.
When the school speed limit was active at the Texas study sites, about half of the sites had a compliance rate of
less than 50 percent with some being lower than 10 percent.
The measured 85th percentile speed was 26 mph for the 20 mph school speed limit (SSL), 30 mph for the 25
mph SSL, 37 mph for 30 mph SSL, and 43 mph for the 35 mph SSL.
Speeds were higher for greater time increments from the start or end of school.
Operating speeds increased as the distance from the beginning of the school zone increased; for every quarter-
mile (1320 ft) of school zone length, speeds can be expected to increase almost 2.5 mph.
The overall minimum speed in a school speed zone typically occurred between 15 and 30 percent of the school
zone length or within 150 to 500 ft after the school speed limit sign (for zones that ranged in lengths between
600 to over 4100 ft).
If assuming that braking is expected to occur to achieve the desired speed at the start of the school speed zone
(rather than just releasing the gas pedal), the average deceleration determined at 19 sites was 5.3 ft/sec2, which
is about half of the assumed comfortable deceleration rate of 10.0 ft/sec2 or the value currently assumed for
stopping sight distance (11.2 ft/sec2).
Researchers developed a set of proposed guidelines regarding traffic control for school areas, especially with
respect to school speed zones. The guidelines are designed to serve as a supplement to the Texas Manual
on Uniform Traffic Control Devices and the Texas Department of Transportation manual on Procedures for
Establishing Speed Zones. Major topics in the guidelines include: definitions, school locations, school speed
zone characteristics, pavement markings, crosswalks, school entrance warning assembly, and conditions for
removing a school speed zone.
Location of the beginning of a school speed zone should be sensitive to school speed limit.
School speed zone lengths in urban areas can be as short as 400 ft. The recommended lengths for school
speed zones and school buffer zones are 1000 ft and 500 ft, respectively.
Active times of school speed zones should be 30 min before to 5 min after the beginning of school in the
morning, and the reverse in the afternoon (5 min before to 30 min after school dismisses).
A School Entrance Warning assembly may be considered at an unsignalized entrance to a school without a
school speed zone.
A school speed zone may be removed if: a traffic signal, all-way stop, or turn Key Words:
bay is installed; a sight distance concern is corrected; or if there are changes school zones, speeds, school
in bus or pedestrian arrival patterns. traffic control devices
RMC 4 87
Studies to Improve the Management of Regulatory Speed Limits
0-5561-1 in Texas Work Zones
A maximum speed reduction of 5 mph is more applicable for shoulder activities and lane encroachment
conditions. Speed limit reductions on roadways with existing speed limits less than 65 mph should be
discouraged under certain conditions. Where the need for lower speed limits, below actual travel speeds, exists
due to a work zone hazard that is not adequately perceived by motorists, enforcement should be targeted in
order to encourage motorist compliance and to raise motorist awareness of the surroundings.
Current Texas law is fairly restrictive in terms of establishing reduced speed limits in work zones. Most of the
difficulties lie in the need to establish a single speed limit on a roadway segment which requires approval from
the Texas Transportation Commission. Current law allows TxDOT to deactivate a work zone speed limit when
not needed (by removing or covering the sign that designates the lower speed limit), but it does not provide
TxDOT with the flexibility to easily accommodate changes in the work zone speed limit based on the existing
work conditions (e.g., 5 mph for a lane encroachment condition and 10 mph when a lane is closed).
In this project, the ESL signs and flexible reflective roll-up static work zone speed limit signs were effective
and understood by motorists. In addition, these devices simplified the short term work zone speed limit
implementation process. Motorists also understood work zone speed limit signs shown on full-matrix PCMS.
However, they did not understand trailer-mounted static work zone speed limit signs with flashing beacons.
This report includes recommended changes to the current procedure for determining regulatory speed limits
in Texas work zones. In addition, researchers recommend the use of ESL signs and flexible reflective roll-up
static work zone speed limit signs. Prior to implementation, TxDOT should
develop standards for these devices and ensure that they are compliant with Key Words:
current criteria for crashworthy work zone traffic control devices. work zone speed limits,
reduced speed limits, work
zones, speed management,
electronic speed limit
signs, roll-up signs, changeable
message signs
Example of Flexible Roll-Up Work Zone Speed Limit Sign
RMC 4 88
Studies to Determine the Operational Effects of Shoulder and
0-5577-1 Centerline Rumble Strips on Two-Lane Undivided Roadways
It appears that centerline rumble strips (CRS) on two-lane, undivided roadways with lane widths as narrow as
10 ft do not adversely impact the lateral placement of vehicles in the travel lane. In fact, at locations with CRS
and smaller shoulder widths (1 to 2 ft) drivers positioned the center of their vehicle closer to the center of the
lane, thus potentially improving safety. Therefore, researchers recommend that CRS may be used on two-lane,
undivided roadways with lane widths as narrow as 10 ft.
It also seems that the combination of edgeline rumble strips (ERS) and CRS on two-lane, undivided roadways
with lane widths as narrow as 11 ft do not adversely impact the lateral placement of vehicles in the travel
lane. In fact, a similar benefit of drivers positioning the center of their vehicles closer to the center of the lane
was experienced at locations with smaller shoulder widths (3 ft), again potentially improving safety. Thus,
researchers recommend that the combination of ERS and CRS may be used on two-lane, undivided roadways
with lane widths as narrow as 11 ft.
The effect of shoulder rumble strips (SRS) located within 7 to 9 inches of the edgeline on the lateral placement
of vehicles in the travel lane is highly variable on two-lane, undivided roadways with 12-ft lanes. Nevertheless,
it does appear that the potential exists for SRS located within 7 to 9 inches of the edgeline to shift vehicle travel
paths closer to the centerline, which may increase the likelihood for head-on and opposing-direction sideswipe
crashes and thus negatively impact safety. Even though researchers did not evaluate the impacts of ERS
without CRS, they expect that ERS may also shift the lateral placement of vehicles in the travel lane toward
the centerline. However, it does seem that the application of CRS in conjunction with ERS may counteract
this tendency since drivers tended to position their vehicles closer to the center of the lane. In addition, it
appears that depressed SRS located 35 inches from the edgeline do not adversely impact the lateral placement
of vehicles in the travel lane on two-lane, undivided roadways with 12-ft lanes. Thus researchers recommend
that CRS be installed in conjunction with SRS that are placed on the edgeline (i.e., ERS) or within 9 inches of
the edgeline. In addition, the use of CRS should be considered when SRS are located more than 9 inches but
less than 35 inches from the edgeline. Researchers do not believe that CRS are needed when SRS are placed 35
inches or more from the edgeline.
Lateral offsets that position the center of 16-inch-wide SRS in the middle of shoulders at least 4 ft wide should
provide enough remaining shoulder width for the 85th percentile distracted driver to correct his or her errant
vehicle trajectory before leaving the paved roadway surface.
Researchers recommend that a crash study be conducted to assess the actual safety implications of SRS and
CRS installed on two-lane, undivided roadways. Unlike previous research, the study should assess the impacts
of SRS and CRS on all types of crashes, not just those for which a safety benefit is expected.
Key Words:
shoulder rumble strips, edgeline
rumble strips, centerline rumble
strips, rumble stripes, two-lane
roadways, operations, surrogate
safety
RMC 4 89
Development of a Traffic Signal Operations Handbook
This document summarizes the research conducted and the conclusions reached during the development of a
Traffic Signal Operations Handbook. The handbook provides guidelines for timing traffic control signals at
intersections that operate in isolation or as part of a coordinated signal system. The research conducted included
a review of the literature, a survey of TxDOT engineers, an evaluation of alterative signal controller settings
and detection designs. A spreadsheet was developed to accompany the handbook. This spreadsheet automates
several tasks involved in the development of a signal timing plan and is intended to facilitate implementation of
the handbook guidance.
Key Words:
signalized intersections,
intersection design,
intersection performance,
traffic signal timing
In the photograph taken from the Traffic Signal Operations Handbook’s section on Detection Zones,
the intersection approach is skewed from 90 degrees, which results in a large distance between
the stop line and the crossroad. This setback distance is especially significant for the left-turn
movements. In anticipation of left-turn drivers creeping past the stop line while waiting for a green
indication, additional detectors are located beyond the stop line.
RMC 4 90
Serviceable Pavement Marking Retroreflectivity Levels:
Measurements made with handheld and mobile retroreflectometers utilizing best practices showed very close
correlation, with less than 5 percent variation.
Measurement distance, temperature, and position across the measurement window had a significant influence on
mobile readings. Software compensation provided good results in accounting for these variables.
Visual inspection can be used to identify segments for measurement, but, depending on the observer, ratings
can vary. Utilization of a simple reference guide of what “good” and “bad” markings look like can bring some
consistency to visual inspections.
Straightforward methods of displaying the retroreflectivity data are possible using GIS. The number of data
points is not the most challenging aspect; it is the number of roadway segments that are measured. Automation
can effectively solve those challenges.
Properly conducted mobile retroreflectivity data collection is an effective means of gathering pavement marking
retroreflectivity values.
Key Words:
Development of a pavement marking management system to track the
serviceable pavement
retroreflectivity of the pavement markings would be beneficial in monitoring
marking, pavement marking
and evaluating the pavement marking asset.
performance, retroreflectivity,
pavement marking evaluation,
visual inspection, mobile
retroreflectometer, sensitivity
testing, calibration best
practices, Pavement Marking
Management System,
Pavement Marking Information
System, GIS, sampling
methods
Nighttime Oncoming Vehicle Testing
RMC 4 91
The Effects of On-Street Parking on Cyclist Route Choice and
0-5755-1 the Operational Behavior of Cyclists and Motorists
This research paper and deliverables provide additional information and tools for evaluating bikeways. The
study results contribute to the existing literature on bicycling in three ways. First, unlike any other study, it
presents an analysis of attributes impacting bicyclist route preferences by examining all bikeway attributes
in a single framework. Second, a number of earlier studies have employed descriptive analysis to evaluate
the influence of attributes on bicycle route choice. The current study employs a multivariate analysis of the
attributes that influence bicycle route choice. Third, on-street parking attributes are often not considered
in bicycle route choice analysis. In this research, the consideration of parking related attributes, including
parking turnover rate, length of parking area, and parking occupancy rate, was the focus and how various other
attributes and conditions affect a bicyclist route choice.
It is clear that evaluating the influence of numerous attributes through revealed preference data alone does
not provide sufficient results. Thus, a stated preference methodology was undertaken to develop a web-based
survey to gather additional data from bicyclists in Texas. The data from the survey was collected and cleaned
prior to estimation. After checking the consistency of the data, a panel mixed multinomial logit formulation was
employed to evaluate the trade-offs of the attributes.
The results of the empirical analysis offer several important insights. The study results underscore the influence
that on-street parking has on bicycle route choice. Specifically, the results indicate that bicyclists prefer routes
without on-street parking. Among the routes with parking, bicyclists prefer routes with angle parking. The
study also highlights the preference for continuous bicycle facilities, lower traffic volume, and lower roadway
speeds as well as fewer stop signs, red lights, and cross streets. Another interesting fact revealed by the analysis
was that bicyclists generally prefer moderate hills over flat terrain. Finally, the analysis clearly emphasizes the
sensitivity of bicyclists to travel time, and the need to consider both route-
related attributes and bicyclists’ demographics when selecting and designing Key Words:
bikeways. bicycle facility design, bicycle
route choice analysis, stated
preference model,
web-based survey, panel mixed
multinomial logit,
on-street parking
Example of a Bicycle Lane with Adjacent

On-Street Motor Vehicle Parking
RMC 4 92
Driver Response to Delineation Treatments on Horizontal Curves
0-5772-1 on Two-Lane Roads
The findings from the closed-course study and survey supported the further exploration of the fully reflectorized
posts for PMDs and chevrons in the field study. For all treatment types the results were similar for all vehicle
types and during both day and night periods.
Both PMD treatments caused vehicles to move away from the centerline by approximately 7 to 20 inches.
Estimated centerline encroachments decreased by approximately 78 percent.
The variability in lateral lane position decreased by approximately 38 percent.
Neither PMD treatment achieved a significant difference in mean vehicle speed.
Both chevron treatments caused vehicles to move away from the centerline by approximately 10 to 20 inches.
Estimated centerline encroachments decreased by approximately 88 to 93 percent.
The variability in lateral lane position decreased by approximately 40 percent. The mean speed was significantly
lower, by 1.4 mph for chevrons and 2.2 mph for the ChevFull treatment, when compared to the baseline-
markings-only condition.
The findings from the field study showed that when curves are marked with just pavement markings and raised
pavement markers, many vehicles enter the curve very close to the centerline and often encroach into the
other lane or onto the shoulder. The use of any vertical delineation system greatly improved the lane position
of vehicles day and night. It is therefore recommended that TxDOT districts increase their use of vertical
delineation for horizontal curves on rural two-lane roads.
The fully reflectorized post-mounted delineators did not have a significant effect on vehicle speed in curves, but
did improve their lane position both at the entry to the curve and at its midpoint. It is therefore recommended
that TxDOT consider changing its specifications for post-mounted delineators to call for a fully reflective post.
Chevrons had a large effect on both speed and lateral placement in the curve. Adding reflective sheeting to the
post of a chevron did not produce any larger improvements than a standard
Key Words:
chevron. It is therefore recommended that TxDOT maintain its current standards
delineation, chevrons,
for chevron design.
post-mounted delineators
Curve at Dusk with Baseline Treatment
RMC 4 93
Improvements to Video Imaging Detection for Dilemma Zone
0-5774-1 Protection
Even using the latest equipment from the three manufacturers, TTI found greater than desired variability in
the setback detection activation and termination points in good weather and lighting conditions. Detection
deteriorated even more at night and during inclement weather. Many agencies, TxDOT included, commonly
exceed the maximum aspect ratio (defined as the ratio of the horizontal distance to a detection zone to the
mounting height of the camera) of 10:1 recommended by the VIVDS industry. Hasty setups of VIVDS detection
zones also contributed to errors, with violators including the vendors themselves. Lack of maintenance
such as lens cleaning probably compromises performance as well, but this research did not formally include
maintenance.
The most common problem identified with VIVDS for dilemma zone protection was its inability to find gaps
in the traffic stream, a phenomenon that only worsens as traffic volume increases. Even at a 10:1 aspect ratio,
the camera’s flat horizontal angle causes blending of vehicles front-to-back such that the camera sees a string of
vehicles as one vehicle. This phenomenon is especially pronounced with large numbers of commercial vehicles.
A VIVDS camera often cannot see a gap behind vehicles, frequently extending the green indication to max-out
instead of ending the green safely and providing the critically needed dilemma zone protection.
Findings of this research have implications for both safety and efficiency at signalized intersections. When a
max-out occurs, there is no dilemma zone protection. When VIVDS cannot find an acceptable gap to terminate
the green phase, there are also efficiency losses due to excessive delay to the minor street and possibly large
gaps in the traffic stream where a phase termination should have occurred. Certain weather and lighting
conditions exacerbate the frequency and unpredictability of these errors. Detection at night usually occurs at the
leading edge of the headlight beams (“headlight bloom”) rather than at the front of the vehicle. Street lighting
appears to reduce the problem but not eliminate it. Detections occur earlier and remain longer at night, but
again, with less predictability compared to daytime.
Based on project findings, TxDOT should emphasize the use of VIVDS as a stop line detector, add dedicated
poles upstream of the intersection for setback detection needs, or investigate
Key Words:
other technologies that serve dilemma zone detection needs more consistently
dilemma zone detection,
and reliably than VIVDS.
video imaging, VIVDS,
VIP, VID, traffic signals
F.M. 2818/George Bush Drive Intersection
RMC 4 94
Development of Left-Turn Operations Guidelines at Signalized
0-5840-1 Intersections
http://itri.tsu.edu/Reports/TxDOT_5840-R1.pdf
The results of this research provide answers to the following critical questions in left-turn signal design: 1) How
do you select the most appropriate type of left-turn signal phasing for a signalized intersection, 2) How do you
display the left-turn signal appropriately, and 3) Will the regional standardization of left-turn signal operation
bring benefits?
Based on the simulation results, CPOV-based criteria for selecting between PO and PPLT modes were
developed, which recommends that: 1) At intersections with one opposing through lane, PPLT mode should be
selected when the CPOV value is equal to or less than the threshold of 133,000, and 2) At intersections with two
opposing through lanes, PPLT mode should be used when the CPOV value is equal to or less than the threshold
of 93,000.
In terms of the signal phasing sequence, it was found that the sequence affects intersection operations mainly
through its impacts on the signal coordination of the network. From the literature review and the results of
traffic simulation, the following recommendations are provided: 1) For an intersection in a two-way coordinated
arterial, the signal phasing sequence that maximizes through bandwidth should be selected, and 2) For an
intersection in a one-directional coordinated arterial during peak hour periods, lead-lag sequence should
be considered because it can cause less delay for the subject left-turn movements than other signal phasing
sequences.
For the safety impact analysis, both simple comparison methods and advanced statistic modeling methods were
employed for analyzing the historical accident data collected from more than 100 intersections. The major
findings are summarized as follows: 1) Protected-only is the safest signal control mode, 2) Under PO mode,
lead-lag is the safest, followed by lead-lead and lag-lag, and 3) Under PPLT mode, lead-lead and lag-lag are
safer than lead-lag when left-turn volume is low, and lead-lag is safer than lead-lead when left-turn volume is
high.
Based on the findings of operational and safety impact analysis, the results of the literature review, and the
survey results, guidelines for determining left-turn signal phasing, i.e., left-turn signal control mode and
sequence, were developed.
The analysis of different PPLT signal display arrangements showed that the five-section cluster signal display
is associated with less accident risk than the five-section horizontal signal display. Guidelines on how to select
different types of signal displays for different types of left-turn signal phasing and on how to place the signal
heads appropriately have been developed.
From the analysis of safety benefits of regional standardization of left-turn signal phasing and signal display
researchers concluded that regional standardization of left-turn signal operations will benefit intersection safety.
Based on the results of the research conducted in this project, it is recommended that regional standardized
guidelines be used for left-turn operations at signalized intersections. The
Key Words:
appropriate left-turn phasing treatments and signal displays can be determined
dilemma zone detection,
by using the guidelines developed by this study.
video imaging, VIVDS,
VIP, VID, traffic signals
RMC 4 95
Alternative Vehicle Detection Technologies for Traffic Signal
0-5845-1 Systems: Technical Report
Both magnetometers (discussed below) are “point detectors” with accuracies approaching that of inductive
loops for stop line detection.
GTT detectors mount 24 to 36 inches below the pavement surface – usually in a horizontal bore. Post-
construction horizontal boring is expensive. More viable options are installing the necessary conduit before
construction at new intersections, or installing them underneath bridges.
The Sensys Networks magnetometer requires a short lane closure and mounts flush with the pavement surface,
communicating with the roadside via wireless communication. It is subject to damage from surface operations
such as milling.
The Wavetronix SmartSensor Advance radar only provides dilemma zone detection, not detection at the stop
line. The function of this detector is to monitor main street vehicle distance and speed from the intersection to
predict each vehicle’s arrival in the dilemma zone.
Optimum performance of the radar requires setting the appropriate passage time in the controller (0.5 sec to 1.0
sec) and the appropriate range of dilemma zone values (default is 2.5 sec to 5.5 sec). Detector location is the
other critical consideration – it should be at the stop bar or not more than about 2.5 sec travel time upstream of
the stop bar.
Detection accuracy of all three detectors is within a desirable range. Both magnetometers over-counted vehicles
at the stop line, but did not miss vehicles except some motorcycles. The radar detected gaps in traffic better than
video and exhibited detection accuracy that was on par with video in good weather. It is not affected by weather
or light, so its accuracy under adverse conditions would exceed video.
Initial costs using these detectors increase generally with the number of lanes and speeds. For both stop line and
dilemma zone detection, the Sensys Networks is usually the least expensive even if GTT boring is excluded. For
dilemma zone detection only, the Sensys Networks detector is the least expensive for one through-lane but the
Wavetronix SmartSensor Advance radar is the least expensive for two or three throughlanes.
Findings of this research indicate that there are viable options that TxDOT can and should consider for
replacement of video imaging systems and inductive loops. However, a decision by TxDOT to remove all
detection from the pavement would eliminate Sensys Networks magnetometers
from further consideration. These detectors should not be ruled out if short Key Words:
lane closures are acceptable, where railroad tracks create challenges for wired non-intrusive detectors,
options, or where short-term detection needs override the anticipated change. magnetometers,
microwave radar, video
imaging, VIVDS, VIP,
VID, traffic signals
RMC 4 96
Establishing Advisory Speeds on Non Direct-Connect Ramps:
Current procedures for setting ramp advisory speeds in the state of Texas are outlined in the Texas Department
of Transportation’s official procedures for establishing speed zones. For ramps, these procedures suggest using
exit speed or ramp speed signing where an engineering investigation shows the necessity of advising drivers
of the maximum recommended speed on a ramp. Research conducted under this investigation involved speed
studies of ramps with a broad range of horizontal and vertical curvatures, frontage road to freeway speed
differentials and distances between the ramp and the downstream cross street in order to create a predictive
model of ramp speed. Utilizing the degree of curvature (if any) found along the ramp and the distance along the
ramp from the freeway exit ramp gore to the downstream intersection along the ramp or frontage road, analysts
use the predictive model to identify the expected mean truck speed along the
ramp. Based on the difference in speed between the freeway and the mean Key Words:
truck speed expected along the ramp, a ramp advisory speed signing scheme is ramp, advisory speed,
recommended. warning speed
Flashers Supplementing Ramp Advisory Speed Sign
RMC 4 97
Coordination and Safety Procedures for Mail Delivery on
0-6076-1 Roadways Without Shoulders: Technical Report
Researchers recommend considering several issues for inclusion in the TxDOT Roadway Design Manual and/or
the TxDOT Construction Contract Administration Manual, including: 1) where to place mailboxes with respect
to driveways, 2) when and where to use mailbox turnouts, and 3) specific direction as to coordination with the
USPS.
Researchers recommend the manuals state that mailboxes be placed on the right side of the roadway (from a
driver’s perspective) and never on the left side. Additionally, field conditions should dictate the selection of
near side versus far side installation with respect to the driveway. This determination should be based primarily
on sight distance while noting that rural letter carriers prefer that the mailbox be mounted on the far side of the
driveway when possible. This preference for far side installation is so that a driveway’s turn radius can be used
as a refuge area when a turnout area does not exist.
The information collected during the TxDOT Area Engineer survey indicated TxDOT uses certain factors,
such as traffic volume, roadway speed, and sight distance, when deciding on when and where to use mailbox
turnouts. Researchers believe this process should be formalized for inclusion in the design manual. TxDOT
would need to establish acceptable threshold criteria for each of these factors (e.g., a low-volume road is
considered one with an ADT of less than 400 vehicles per day). In establishing such criteria TxDOT would be
providing consistent guidance to designers and engineers statewide and thereby further standardizing driver and
rural letter carrier expectations and improving roadway safety on two-lane roadways.
Researchers also recommend adding notes to the manuals regarding early and frequent coordination with the
postmaster for the area of a significant construction or maintenance project being planned. This coordination
could occur at Design Concept Conference (DCC) meetings, periodic utility coordination meetings, and/or pre-
work/pre-construction meetings. Coordination may be necessary on more than one occasion, especially if long-
term work zones are part of the planned activities for the area and if mailboxes are to be relocated to temporary
mounts and/or locations. It is more than likely that these types of coordination meetings would occur anyway,
so inviting the postmaster to participate would not add any additional financial burden or time constraint to the
project. This early and frequent coordination on the part of TxDOT would ensure a safer delivery route for the
letter carrier and a safer driving environment for the traveling public.
Additionally, researchers recommend reviewing current mailbox standard sheets to ensure that they reflect the
most current engineering design criteria. For example, researchers noted that minor inconsistencies exist for
mailbox mounting heights recommended by AASHTO, TxDOT, and the USPS.
With regard to the USPS, researchers recommend that postmasters and their letter carriers continue their annual
safety inspections of letter carrier routes and continue documentation of potential safety hazards. Researchers
also recommend that the USPS improve upon their current process by keeping local TxDOT contact information
current and sharing the information they collect regarding potential safety hazards with the local TxDOT area
engineer. By doing this, TxDOT can identify and prioritize local postmaster needs with regard to future highway
improvements. The USPS should also continue their driver training and driver safety award programs that
appear to have a positive impact on reducing vehicle-involved accidents and on-the-job injuries. Lastly, the
USPS should consider adopting uniform criteria for the placement of strobes on
vehicles and for the size, shape, color, and location of sign placards. Key Words:
mailbox installation,
mailbox turnout, rural
highway safety
RMC 4 98
Structures and
Hydraulics
results
RMC 5
RMC 5 - Structures and Hydraulics
Focus Areas
• Bridge Rails & Transitions
• Geotechnical Issues
• High Mast Illumination Poles
• Hydraulics & Hydrology
• Overhead Sign Bridges
• Structures Construction &
Maintenance
• Structures Design & Analysis
• Structures Management
• Structures Materials
RMC 5 99
Bending Fatigue Response of Grouted Stay Cables
The results of this study show that the stays are susceptible to fatigue damage from the bending of the cable
when they are excited by transverse vibrations. The fatigue failures of the wires in the prestressing strand were
localized. The majority of the failures occurred at the location of the attachment of the specimen to the loading
actuator. The remaining failures occurred near the anchorage. The maximum bending stress in the strands
occurs at these locations. No failures occurred along the free length of the stay, even when the strands were
intentionally crossed. The fatigue failures occur one wire at a time. The interval between individual wire failures
is initially large and decreases as the number of wire fractures increases. There is considerable fatigue life after
the first wire fracture and before significant loss of stay strength.
The transverse stiffness and natural frequencies of the specimens were not reliable indicators of the number of
wire fractures. Within a short distance from a wire fracture, the fractured wires become fully active due to the
helical form of the strand and the bond with the grout.
The locations of wire breaks detected by the acoustic sensors were compared with the actual locations
determined during an autopsy of the specimen at the conclusion of the fatigue test. The agreement between the
number and location of the wire breaks predicted by the acoustic systems and the actual breaks was very good.
Based upon the results of the laboratory evaluation of the acoustic monitoring system, the system was installed
to monitor all the stays in both the Veterans Memorial Bridge and the Fred Hartman Bridge.
The fatigue failures can occur at the anchorages or at locations where the lateral movement of the stay is
restrained. In the bridge, failures could also occur at the damper attachments to the stay or at the cable restrainer
attachment points since the cable deformation is constrained at these locations. The currently employed
vibration mitigation system of cable restrainers and dampers should be maintained to reduce the accumulation
of fatigue damage in the stays. These vibration mitigation methods along with the continued acoustic
monitoring of the stays will increase the life of the stays and ensure the safety of the bridge.
The accuracy of the acoustic system to determine the location of the wire break is approximately 3 feet. Any
wire breaks within 3 feet of each other should be considered as occurring at the same location. The fracture
of the wires is a slow process occurring one wire at a time. Many wire fractures can be tolerated before there
is a significant loss in stay strength due to the large number of wires in the stay. The number of wire breaks
at a location should not exceed 10% of the total number of wires in the stay before that area is examined. The
sheathing and grout should be removed to expose the strand and the number of wire breaks verified. The cause
of the failures should also be ascertained so remedial action can be taken to prevent further wire failures.
The axial and bending stiffness of the cables is not affected until a large percentage of the wires has fractured
in the stay. Monitoring the cable health by measuring its stiffness by a pluck test or other means is not a viable
method to determine the extent of fatigue damage in the stay.
Key Words:
cable stays, fatigue, acoustic
monitoring, grout, strand, fretting,
damage accumulation
RMC 5 100
Effects of Wet Mat Curing Time and Earlier Loading on Long-
0-2116-3 Term Durability of Bridge Decks: Rapid Chloride Permeability
Tests and Ponding Tests
http://www.techmrt.ttu.edu/Reports/Complete%20Reports/0-2116-3_revd0509.pdf
This research report is one of several published from a six-year study sponsored by the Texas Department
of Transportation (TxDOT) that investigated the impact of wet-mat curing duration on bridge deck concrete
durability. This report presents findings related to chloride permeability of several widely used TxDOT bridge
deck concrete mixes.
The Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT) and the Ponding Test (AASHTO T259) were selected and seven
mix designs were tested; four were evaluated using cores taken from field-cast model bridge decks and the other
three from laboratory-cast specimens. Mix designs were selected based on their extent of use around the State,
with differences in terms of type of cement, coarse aggregate type, supplementary cementitious material (SCM)
type and SCM content. Wet-mat curing durations of 0, 2, 4, 8, 10 and 14 days were evaluated for each mix.
The chloride permeability of each mix was found to be sensitive to the wet-mat curing duration and each mix
appeared to provide increases in resistance to permeability up to 4 or 8 days depending on the mix, beyond
which the marginal benefits appeared to diminish. Both tests, the RCPT in particular, showed sensitivity to
mixes that contained SCMs. Mixes that contained siliceous gravel coarse aggregate and Type I cement showed
some of the highest permeability values among all mixes tested. They displayed moderate water soluble integral
chloride (ponding) and electric charge (RCPT) values. It was also found that permeability of concrete decreased
as percentage of fly ash (either class F or class C) increased from around 20% to around 30%.
For the seven mixes evaluated, the ponding test results showed that steel reinforcement can be put at a depth
of 1.25” when compared with threshold chloride contents commonly used in the literature. A comparison of
results obtained from the two test methods showed a correlation between their results for some mixes. This may
indicate that RCPT does not correlate well with actual long-term chloride penetration for all mixes.
Further research is needed to either develop a new test or evaluate an alternative test method that can provide a
quick direct measurement of the chloride ion concentration rather than
an indirect process where electrical conductivity is used. Key Words:
concrete, bridge, deck, durability,
curing, wet mat, vehicle loading,
early loading
Coring of Bridge Deck Concrete for Permeability Test - El Paso Site
RMC 5 101
Risk Assessment Model for Wind-Induced Fatigue Failure of
0-4586-4 Cantilever Traffic Signal Structures
http://www.depts.ttu.edu/techmrtweb/Reports/Complete%20Reports/0-4586-4_
final.pdf
Through both full-scale and wind tunnel experiments, evidence was found that at least one traffic signal
configuration is susceptible to experiencing vortex shedding vibrations. The configuration in question has the
signal heads supported at the same height of the mast arm. The experiments also indicated that vortex shedding
vibrations are more likely to occur when the signals have backplates, when the wind speed is steady between
5 to 15 mph, and when the wind approaches the mast arm from the back of the signal. It was also found that
the vibrations caused stress ranges larger than the constant amplitude fatigue limit (CAFL), therefore these
vibrations can lead to fatigue failure of mast arms. The results also indicated that galloping is very unlikely to
occur for this configuration.
Since this configuration was initially reported as not being susceptible to vortex shedding vibrations nor to
galloping it is possible that other configurations studied in the past are also vulnerable to vortex shedding
vibrations. In any case, the experimental results indicate that the AASHTO Specifications (2001) need to be
re-written to consider oscillations induced by vortex shedding in the fatigue design of cantilever traffic signal
structures.
Since fatigue failures can lead to collapses that may cause deaths, it is important for managers responsible for
traffic signal structures to establish inspection schedules for these structures. These schedules should take into
consideration the orientation of the mast arm and the wind climatology of the location to determine which
structures are at most risk of suffering fatigue failure and therefore need to be inspected more frequently. To aid
in the establishing of the inspection schedule, it is recommended that these managers keep a database with all
the necessary information to calculate the remaining fatigue life of each of their structures.
As explained before, the mast arm undergoes larger amplitudes of vibration when the signals have backplates.
Therefore managers should also make sure that signal heads have backplates only when necessary. In the city of
Lubbock there are several arms pointing east or west that have signals with backplates, even though they are not
needed given that drivers will be facing north or south when in front of these structures.
Traffic signal configurations with different types of mast arms should be tested to determine how susceptible
they are to galloping, vortex shedding, and natural wind gusts.
An equivalent static load for vortex shedding needs to be determined to be included in the AASHTO
Specifications (2001) or measures to suppress vortex shedding altogether should be investigated.
Research should be conducted to improve the methodology to predict fatigue life. Some of the things that could
be researched are 1) the determination of accurate values of the C factor which establishes the relationship
between wind tunnel results to full-scale values of peak-to-peak amplitude of vertical vibrations, 2) the
estimation of a more accurate dynamic factor d. This could include taking into consideration the effect that other
mode shapes (besides the first) have on the stresses of the mast arm, and 3) determine a better way to estimate
the cumulative fatigue damage other than the application of Miner’s Rule.
Key Words:
cantilever, mast arm, galloping,
fatigue failure, vortex shedding,
backplates
RMC 5 102
Design Guidance for Low-Water Crossings in Areas of Extreme
0-4695-3 Bed Mobility, Edwards Plateau, Texas
http://www.techmrt.ttu.edu/Reports/Complete%20Reports/0-4695-fpr.pdf
From a geomorphologic perspective, the materials comprising the bedrock of the affected region, combined
with watershed and channel slopes, are such that the materials can and will mobilize during episodic hydrologic
events. The event frequency required to mobilize bed materials is not rare, perhaps as frequent as a five-year
event. Bed materials mobilize when the channel Froude number is approximately 0.5. This observation was
counter-intuitive to the project research team.
Physical modeling of schematic low-water crossings produces behaviors similar to those observed in the
field. Based on the physical modeling, the relative location of a downstream propagating “dune” of solids, the
crossing, and an upstream propagating head cut impacts the behavior of mobile materials in the vicinity of a
crossing. When conditions are favorable, clogged crossings can self clear; however, these conditions are always
transient. Changes to the stream width-depth ratio by reducing the bank slope for the highway approaches might
contribute to a reduction in stream power and exacerbate the deposition of bed-transport materials on the low-
water crossing.
Over a four-year period (1998-2002), maintenance costs attributable to bed-mobility problems in a four-
county area of Texas was $672K. That is an average of $42K/county/year. If the geographic extent of bed-
mobility issues is 11 Texas counties, then the expected annual maintenance cost is $462K. If the affected area is
17 Texas counties, then the expected annual maintenance cost is $714K. These estimates should be considered
lower bounds because of the difficulty in precisely determining maintenance costs associated with bed-mobility
issues. The TxDOT MMIS database is not adequate for tracking bed-mobility related maintenance costs.
A screening model based on the Parker bedload transport method was developed. Although not a specific
deliverable of the project, the tool demonstrates that simple tools can be used to screen sites and rough designs
for changes in bedload transport.
Detailed numerical modeling using GIS to apply MUSLE and HEC-HMS and HEC-RAS to model the
hydrology and hydraulics is feasible, if costly. Application of bedload transport equations (Einstein, Parker, and
Meyer-Peters-Muller) depends on the modeling results. Application of these tools can be used to predict base
level changes at points on interest.
Physical modeling was used to demonstrate that bed sediments mobilize when the Froude number is about
0.5, corroborating the results of Heitmuller and Asquith (2008). The physical model was used to test a few
potential design approaches. If a porous foundation design can be engineered, the results of physical modeling
are such that it is anticipated that bed sediments will mobilize differently than with hard approaches, potentially
alleviating the problem. Physical modeling also, to some extent, demonstrated that multiple barrel culverts have
a potential to self-clear if the barrels are in-line with the stream flow direction. The researchers think that the
barrels need to be large relative to the mean solids dimension that must pass through the system.
Both the screening model and detailed numerical model provide tools to estimate the mass of materials
transported over a relatively long time frame. The estimated masses are not trivial. Based on geomorphologic
investigation, the same long-term behavior is evident — non-trivial mass transport. Based on the physical
modeling (using intentionally accelerated time frames), the mass moved is far larger than the research team
initially anticipated. In addition, some mass always moves and consequently the amount of solids moving in a
real system is probably far greater than engineers currently recognize and crossing designs should accommodate
not only the clear water component, but a solids fraction component comprised of relatively large solids (too
large to be carried in suspension).
Key Words:
hydraulics, bed mobility, sediment
transport, low-water crossings
RMC 5 103
Highway Drainage at Superelevation Transitions
With the experimental program, the primary interest for this research is the effects of surface roughness
and rainfall intensity on the hydraulic behavior of stormwater runoff from pavement surfaces. The physical
modeling program has shown that conventional models from fluid mechanics (logarithmic boundary layer
theory) can be used to describe sheet flow behavior on rough surfaces with a primary variable that is directly
related to surface roughness. Significantly, the much simpler Manning equation provides a model that is equally
capable of representing the experimental data. Estimated magnitudes of roughness height determined using
the logarithmic boundary layer model and Manning’s equation are very similar and correspond directly to the
material characteristics that were used to create the three different experiment surfaces. The effective flow
depth should be measured from near the top of the roughness element height and corresponds to the depth that
is significant in determining hydroplaning potential. Manning coefficient values are consistent with literature
values, and when effective flow depth is used in the flow calculation, the Manning coefficient value does not
depend on flow rate. While there is large uncertainty in predictions for small flow rates, the general lack of flow
rate dependence on the Manning coefficient is different than found in other recent highway-related research
studies and greatly simplifies model development and application. Finally, for sheet flow over rough surfaces,
the effect of rainfall intensity does not have a consistent effect on flow behavior. The chaotic effects of raindrops
impacting sheet flow do not significantly affect flow behavior beyond that caused by the surface roughness.
Rainfall intensity need not be directly included when selecting hydraulic model parameters for estimating
stormwater runoff.
The primary features that influence pavement drainage and ponding of stormwater runoff near superelevation
transitions are the combined effects of the longitudinal slope and the change from negative to positive lateral
grade for the outside lanes of a curve near the transition. The magnitude of the maximum flow depth increases
compared to normal crown conditions and the location of maximum depth changes with the longitudinal slope.
For transitions entering a superelevated section with positive longitudinal grade (down slope), the location of
maximum depth is near the outside edge of pavement for slopes up to 0.4% (which corresponds approximately
to the relative gradient, G, for a design speed of 100 km/hr). For longitudinal slope values between about 0.4
and 3%, the location of maximum ponding depth is located near the roadway centerline, but on the outside
lanes. For longitudinal slope values greater than about 3%, the location of maximum flow depth is located
on the inside edge of pavement at a distance downstream from the zero cross slope (ZCS) station (on the
superelevated side). For transitions entering a superelevated section with negative longitudinal grade (up slope),
the location of maximum flow depth is always located near the outside edge of the pavement at a distance
downstream of the ZCS station (on the normal crown side) that increases with longitudinal grade. For both
configurations, the magnitude of the maximum flow depth changes very little with longitudinal grade.
Manning’s equation can be used for design and assessment of stormwater runoff from roadway surfaces
without concern for whether the effective Manning coefficient value depends on flow rate or rainfall. There
is no minimum longitudinal grade below which ponding depth on roadway surfaces becomes excessive. The
maximum ponding depth does not depend on longitudinal grade, but the location of the region with maximum
ponding depth is sensitive to longitudinal grade. Results from this research may be especially helpful in
identifying locations where enhanced drainage treatments, such as local application of porous friction course
(PFC), may be useful.
Key Words:
stormwater drainage, sheet flow,
Manning equation, diffusion wave
models, superelevation transition
RMC 5 104
Characterization of Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC) for
0-5134-2 Design of Precast, Prestressed Bridge Girders
The CTR research team concluded that it was necessary to exceed the maximum limit of 700 lb/yd3 (415 kg/m3)
of cementitious materials required by the 2004 TxDOT Standard Specifications. The setting times of the SCC
and CC mixtures were similar. The SCC generated greater total heat than the CC. The maximum temperature
limits from the 2004 TxDOT Standard Specifications were not exceeded in the mixtures. With comparable
16-hour release strength, the amounts of shrinkage of the SCC and CC mixtures were similar. Filling ability
and passing ability should be measured with the slump flow and J-ring test, respectively. Both the slump flow
and T50 should be measured. Segregation resistance should be measured with the column segregation or sieve
stability test methods.
The TTI research team concluded that the AASHTO LRFD (2006) prediction equations for the modulus of
rupture, modulus of elasticity, and splitting tensile strength can be used to estimate the mechanical properties of
SCC for concrete compressive strengths from 5 to 10 ksi (34 to 70 MPa). New equations were also developed
for higher-strength SCC.
The AASHTO and modified compression field theory (MCFT) equations may overestimate the shear capacity
for both SCC and CC when the compressive strength is greater than 10 ksi (70 MPa). A new equation was
developed for estimating the shear capacity of SCC and CC for these conditions. Similar creep and reductions in
bond of top bars embedded in concretes were observed for the SCC and CC.
The AASHTO LRFD (2006) equations for creep and the development length of top bars are appropriate. The
durability of SCC was similar to CC with the exception of the freeze-thaw performance. It is recommended that
either SCC be used in environments where the number of freeze-thaw cycles is low or the SCC have a minimum
7 ksi (48 MPa) release strength when used in freeze-thaw environments.
Girder-deck systems with Type A SCC girders exhibited similar flexural performance as those with Type A CC
girders. The AASHTO LRFD (2006) equations for the cracking moment, nominal moment, transfer length,
development length, and prestress losses are appropriate for SCC girder-deck systems similar to those tested in
this study.
Researchers observed some segregation of the SCC when fabricating the full-scale girders. Producers should be
aware of this potential segregation issue and monitor the aggregate moisture carefully.
The research findings indicate that SCC is suitable for use in precast
Key Words:
plants in Texas, specifically those plants producing precast, prestressed
self-consolidating concrete,
girders. However, the research also found that the fresh properties of
prestressed precast concrete,
SCC can be sensitive to environmental and transport conditions. While
mechanical properties, shear
there are many potential benefits of utilizing SCC, precast plants should
characteristics, bond characteristics,
have a good quality-control program in place to ensure successful
creep, freezing and thawing, TxDOT
implementation.
Type A girder, AASHTO LRFD
Specifications
RMC 5 105
Effects of Increasing the Allowable Compressive Stress at
0-5197-3 Release on the Shear Strength of Prestressed Concrete Girders
Based on the experimental results reported in this report, an increase in the allowable maximum compressive
stress in concrete in the end regions of prestressed concrete beams at prestress transfer to 0.65f’ci or 0.70f’ci can
be justified.
The ACI 318-08 equation for web-shear cracking strength proved to be accurate and conservative for beams
subjected to maximum compressive stresses at release in excess of the current allowable limit. On the other
hand, the AASHTO LRFD (2007) equation for Vcw proved to be somewhat overconservative for all beams
tested. The compressive stress in concrete at release also had no effect on the inclination or width of the
diagonal cracks, and as such, they did not influence the accuracy or conservativeness of the Vcw expressions in
estimating diagonal cracking shears.
Shear failure of all beams tested occurred in the form of diagonal tension or web crushing, which are both
viewed as web-shear failures. All beams fabricated with crushed limestone as the coarse aggregate failed by
web crushing, along with three of the beams fabricated with hard river gravel as the coarse aggregate. Nine
beams fabricated with hard river gravel failed in diagonal tension. The mode of failure was affected by the
coarse aggregate type, but not by the maximum compressive stresses in concrete at release. In general, the
beams fabricated with hard river gravel were capable of carrying higher loads than the beams fabricated with
crushed limestone, but the ACI 318-08 and AASHTO LRFD (2007) shear design provisions for nominal shear
strength were conservative in estimating the shear strength of beams fabricated with both types of aggregates. In
addition, no adverse effects of subjecting the beams to maximum compressive stresses in excess of 0.60f’ci was
encountered.
In regards to determining the shear capacity of prestressed concrete members, additional testing should be
carried out on beams released after the current allowable limit with different cross sections, such as box beams,
to confirm the findings of this research project.
Key Words:
prestressed concrete, allowable
compressive stress, shear tests,
diagonal cracking, concrete beams
Typical Live End of Stressing Bed
RMC 5 106
Allowable Compressive Stress at Prestress Transfer
Specimens subjected to maximum compressive stresses greater than 0.65f’ci, exhibited premature cracking.
The compressive stress imposed on these specimens at prestress transfer subjected the concrete in the pre-
compressed tensile zone into the non-linear, inelastic range. This caused microcracking in the concrete that was
not accounted for in prestress losses or standard design calculations of P/A ± Mc/I.
For the 91 specimens tested in TxDOT Project 5197, relaxing the allowable compressive stress at prestress
transfer to 0.65f’ci is justified. In general, premature cracking was not observed in specimens subjected to
maximum compressive stresses of 0.65f’ci or less. It is important to note that two Type-C beam specimens
stressed below 0.65f’ci did exhibit premature cracking but also contained significant sweep which impacted
their flexural behavior. It was determined that those two specimens did not represent typical behavior of Type-C
beams.
For the five box beam specimens fabricated with self consolidating concrete, substantial premature cracking
was observed. Based on the experimental data from these five box beam tests, the use of self consolidating
concrete with a maximum compressive stress at release of 0.65f’ci is not recommended. Based on the
conclusions listed above, it is recommended that the requirement concerning the allowable release stress in
AASHTO-LRFD (2008) Bridge Design Specifications should be revised to read:
“Stresses in concrete immediately after prestress transfer (before timedependent prestress losses):
(a) Extreme fiber stress in compression except as permitted in (b) shall not exceed 0.65f’ci.
(b) Extreme fiber stress in compression at ends of simply supported members shall not exceed 0.70f’ci”.
In regards to the live load performance of beams fabricated with self consolidating concrete, additional
testing should be performed. Based on the results of the five box beams fabricated at 0.65f’ci, further testing
should be completed to determine an appropriate allowable compressive stress limit where satisfactory live
load performance is achieved. Furthermore, an investigation to determine appropriate SCC mixture designs
for prestressed applications should be completed. SCC mixture
Key Words:
designs should be adjusted to ensure satisfactory material properties
allowable release stress, compressive
(workability, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, etc.).
stress limit, prestress transfer,
self consolidating concrete,
microcracking
Slump Flow Test
RMC 5 107
Effects of Texas Fly Ash on Air-Entrainment in Concrete:
0-5207-1 Comprehensive Report
Significant progress was made under this project in better understanding the effects of fly ash on air-entrained
concrete and in developing rapid screening tests that can be used in the field to evaluate a given fly ash.
Considerable progress was also made in understanding the nature of air-entrained bubbles in fresh concrete and
the impact of clustering of air voids on hardened concrete properties.
Loss-on-ignition (LOI), which is typically viewed as an index of carbon content in fly ash, is not a good
indicator of how most of the fly ashes in this study performed in air-entrained concrete. Other parameters, such
as surface area, tend to be more useful in predicting the impact of fly ash on air-entrained concrete.
A modified and improved version of the “Foam Index Test” was developed and has shown potential for being
used in the field as a rapid screening test for fly ashes.
A standard procedure for characterizing ash color has been developed. The procedure includes ash sample
preparation, sample imaging with a common desktop color image scanner and image analysis to quantify image
color information. The scanning and grayscale analysis methods developed under this project can be used as a
quality control tool to identify ashes that may require increased AEA dosage in concrete.
A modified and improved version of the mortar air test was developed and shows promise in predicting AEA
demand in concrete.
A method was presented to produce an AEA dosage response curve for a given fly ash/AEA combination
using only a single concrete mixture. The method was then compared to the standard test for AEA dosage
response that uses several sequential mixtures, and the results were found to be closely comparable for most
mixtures.
Unique insight was gained into the formation and stability of air voids in fresh pastes, and the impact of
pressurization and de-pressurization was quantified. The findings from this study may shed some light on the
impact of construction operations on the air-void system in concrete.
Clustering of air voids around coarse aggregate particles was observed when concrete was retempered (through
the addition of water during the mixing cycle), but no major reductions
in strength were observed beyond what would be expected from the Key Words:
Texas, flyash, flyash analysis,
higher water content.
air-entrainment in concrete,
cementitious materials, slag, silica,
ASTM, LOI
RMC 5 108
Investigation of the Internal Stresses Caused by Delayed
0-5218-1 Ettringite Formation (DEF) in Concrete
This research project has focused on various aspects related to structures affected by Alkali-Silica Reaction
(ASR) and/or DEF. Much of the research performed under this project has already been disseminated through
various publications and technical memos, including perhaps the most important product of this research – a
protocol for evaluating materials-related distress, which is already being used by various research groups and
practitioners in Texas and throughout the United States.
This specific report focused on a key point of emphasis of this project – specifically an attempt to quantify
stresses and strains generated by DEF and an attempt to shed some light on the levels of confinement needed
to suppress DEF-induced strains in field elements. To this end, this project has been quite successful. Through
a variety of different approaches (steel fiber-reinforced concrete, Hoek cells, oedometers, FRP wraps, etc.), the
researchers have been able to provide estimates for the levels of confinement needed to control DEF.
The general conclusion is that although DEF can lead to significant levels of expansion, it appears to be possible
and feasible to confine DEF in affected structures, and interestingly, the levels of confinement tend to be on the
order of those needed to confine ASR, or even less. In separate, TxDOT-funded research, it has also been shown
that it is actually easier to suppress DEF than ASR when drying out concrete through the use of sealers/coatings
(DEF can be suppressed at relative humidities below 90 percent, whereas ASR may require relative humidities
as low as 80 percent to reduce expansion). Of course, a great deal more work is needed on this topic, and this
project was just one of several past and ongoing studies evaluating the structural effects of DEF (and/or ASR
for that matter). It is hoped that this study, coupled with the other efforts, will provide TxDOT with guidance on
how best to manage structures affected by ASR and/or DEF.
Key Words:
DEF, delayed ettringite formation,
Hoek
Post-tensioning System for

Simulating Service Load Conditions
RMC 5 109
Strength and Serviceability Design of Reinforced Concrete Deep
0-5253-1 Beams
In this research project, deep beam behavior was extensively studied. Thirty-seven tests were conducted on
some of the largest deep beams ever tested in the history of shear research. In addition, an extensive database
was compiled of previous shear tests in the literature. From the analysis of all of these data, the effect of the
following factors on the strength and serviceability performance of deep beams was determined: the distribution
of stirrup legs across the width of the member, triaxial confinement at CCC and CCT nodes, the quantity of web
reinforcement, the depth of the member, and the shear-span-to-depth ratio.
With the knowledge obtained from investigating the effect of these factors, new strut-and-tie model provisions
for strength were developed that are simpler and more accurate than those in AASHTO LRFD (2008) and ACI
318-08, and yet are just as conservative. In addition, design provisions aimed at improving the serviceability
performance of deep beams were proposed. Minimum web reinforcement was recommended to control the
width of diagonal cracks, and a service-load check was suggested to limit the formation of cracks in service.
The knowledge obtained from this study was also used to improve the evaluation of bent caps in the field. A
comprehensive understanding of the factors affecting the behavior of
deep beams is vital to properly assessing the condition of a bent cap in Key Words:
service. bent caps, deep beams, strut-and-tie
modeling, crack widths, diagonal
cracking, serviceability
A key component of the new testing frame was a 96,000-pound steel platen or strong floor.
RMC 5 110
Recommendations for the Use of Precast Deck Panels at
0-5367-1 Expansion Joints
The PC panels for 0° and 45° skew bridge decks exhibited excellent fatigue response. The specific responses of
bridge deck specimens with 0° skew are:
Service-Level Fatigue Behavior - The overall system response (load vs. deflection) and the measured strain
response remained linear throughout the fatigue test and did not change appreciably with increasing fatigue
cycles. The stiffness of specimens was lower after being subjected to static overload, but the fatigue response
did not change appreciably with increasing fatigue cycles. No delamination or deterioration was observed
along the interface of the PC panel and the cast-in-place slab during the fatigue tests.
Design-Level Fatigue Behavior - The overall system response (load vs. deflection) and the measured strain
responses remained linear throughout the fatigue tests, and did not change appreciably with increasing fatigue
cycles. The stiffness of specimens reduced after the static overload test (three times the design wheel load), but
the fatigue response did not change appreciably with increasing fatigue cycles.
One of the major research findings relates to the fabrication and use of trapezoidal prestressed concrete panels.
The research team for project 0-5367 demonstrated that trapezoidal prestressed panels can be used as stay-in-
place formwork at skewed expansion joints. Important observations from bridge deck specimens with 30° and
45° skews are:
The orientation (fanned or parallel) of the strands in the precast panel did not influence the strength or stiffness
of the test specimens. However, parallel strand panels were found to be much simpler to fabricate.
Even though the length of the free end of skewed panels is greater than that of rectangular panels, the skewed
panels exhibited similar strength and stiffness to rectangular panels, provided that the surface roughness was
sufficient to prevent delamination of the panel from the topping slab.
Test specimens with a 45o skew angle exhibited maximum load carrying capacities four times greater than the
21.3-kip Design Wheel Load for the HL-93 Design Truck, and they failed in diagonal shear at the short side
support.
The overall system response remained linear throughout the duration of the fatigue loading at service level
loads, and no delamination or reduction of stiffness was observed with increasing fatigue loading.
Fatigue loading did not significantly affect overall system stiffness or the maximum load carrying capacity for
the specimens compared to specimens with no previous load history.
In two tests of 30o panels, the topping slab delaminated from the panels. Because of the delamination, the
maximum load carrying capacities were only 2.5 times greater than the Design Wheel Load. Panel surface
roughness was likely the cause of panel delamination. When the same tests were repeated in two 30o specimens
with panels having a rough surface, maximum applied loads were 3.7 times the Design Wheel Load, a strength
that better correlates with the 45o specimens.
The results of this research project demonstrate that precast concrete panels can be used adjacent to expansion
joints in bridges with skew angles between 0° and 45° and panel
widths up to 9 ft 6 in. without compromising the strength or fatigue Key Words:
performance of the bridge deck. The research results further show that precast panels, skewed expansion
producing trapezoidal precast prestressed panels can be economical joints, concrete, bridge, deck, slab,
while accommodating a wide range of geometries. shear, fatigue
RMC 5 111
Hydraulic Performance of Bridge Rails
The hydraulic performance of different bridge rail systems varies widely, primarily as a function of rail height
and the amount of open space within the rail face. Using the hydraulic and submergence models with calibrated
coefficients, the hydraulic performance of bridge rail systems can be accurately predicted for a range of flow
conditions. Skew orientation has a negligible effect on bridge rail hydraulic performance. Of all the bridge rails
tested, the Wyoming two-tube rail has the highest hydraulic efficiency, in that it will allow a given flow rate to
pass the rail with the least required upstream headwater (upstream depth). The T101 rail is the TxDOT crash-
tested rail with the greatest hydraulic efficiency.
This research has provided information on the hydraulic performance of different TxDOT crash-tested rails that
can be used in new bridge construction and bridge rehabilitation. A procedure has been developed for including
the effects of bridge rail hydraulic performance in floodplain analysis models. This information and procedures
allow the design engineer to predict the backwater effects of different
bridge rail systems and determine whether a FEMA floodplain re- Key Words:
evaluation would be required based on rail hydraulic performance. hydraulics, bridge rails, floodplain,
Weir equations, culvert, flow, test
channel, return channel, Pitot tube
Headbox at Upstream End of Test Channel
RMC 5 112
Feasibility Report and Plan of Action for Development of a New,
0-5492-2 Hydraulically Efficient Bridge Rail
The hydraulic performance of different bridge rail systems varies widely, primarily as a function of rail height
and the amount of open space within the rail face
A hydraulically efficient bridge rail will allow a larger flow rate at smaller specific energy.
The solid (T501, SSTR, T221) and weir rails are least hydraulically efficient. Of intermediate efficiency are the
T203 and T411 bridge rails. The most efficient rails are the T101 and Wyoming two-tube rails.
The T101 and Wyoming rails have the greatest efficiency, as shown by their larger discharge for a given
upstream specific energy. The hydraulic efficiency of the T101 and Wyoming bridge rails for small flow rates is
associated with the small rail post size and large open space. At larger flow rates the improved efficiency of the
Wyoming rail over the T101 rail is associated with its larger effective flow area.
Not surprisingly, the features that promote hydraulic efficiency are 1) small rail post size, 2) large fraction
of open space in the rail face, and 3) rounding of the bridge structure elements to help control streamline
separation.
One of the original objectives of this research program was to assess the feasibility for development of a crash-
tested bridge rail with improved hydraulic efficiency, and to propose a path forward towards its development.
However, the results from this research suggest that the marginal gains from such an effort would be limited.
For the Wyoming rail, the effective weir-type flow has been eliminated (Cd = 0). There is no suggestion
of improved hydraulic performance by increasing the fraction of open space. This rail also has an orifice
coefficient corresponding to the theoretical value for a sharp-edged orifice.
One option for improved hydraulic performance would be to make the tubes of the Wyoming rail more elliptical
in cross-sections, though it appears that such a change would have limited hydraulic effect, and the structural
effects (crash-test response) are unknown.
For greatest hydraulic efficiency, it is recommended that TxDOT consider use of the Wyoming two-tube bridge
rail.
Key Words:
hydraulics, bridge rails, floodplain,
Weir equations, culvert, flow, test
channel, return channel, Pitot tube
RMC 5 113
Regression Equations for Estimation of Annual Peak-Streamflow
0-5521-1 Frequency for Undeveloped Watersheds in Texas Using an
L-Moment-Based, PRESS-Minimized, Residual-Adjusted
Approach
http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2009/5087/pdf/sir2009-5087.pdf
The purpose of this report is to present regression equations from the L-moment-based, PRESS-minimized,
residual-adjusted approach for estimation of annual peak-streamflow frequency for undeveloped watersheds in
Texas and restricted mainly to ungaged watersheds. The approach, which required a complex computational
framework, has three thematic components.
One, the L-moment statistics of the annual peak-streamflow data, by station, are used to fit seven probability
distributions to the data. From these seven distributions, representative values (estimates) of station-specific,
peak-streamflow frequency were extracted for each of the nine recurrence intervals.
Two, weighted-least-squares, multi-linear regression analysis using the station-specific, peak-streamflow
frequency and selected watershed characteristics is used to develop regression equations. The regression
included a technique to minimize the Prediction Error Sum of Squares (PRESS) statistic by power
transformation of drainage area.
Three, an adjustment based on regression residuals is created Key Words:
that represents a generalized correction for climate, terrain, and flood frequency, peak streamflow,
other variables not otherwise expressed by the selected watershed Texas
characteristics.
Alternative Regression Equations for Estimation of Annual Peak-

0-5521-2 Streamflow Frequency for Undeveloped Watersheds in Texas
Using PRESS Minimization
http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2008/5084/pdf/sir2008-5084.pdf
The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Texas Department of Transportation and in partnership
with Texas Tech University, investigated a refinement of the regional regression method and developed
alternative equations for estimation of peak-streamflow frequency for undeveloped watersheds in Texas. A
common model for estimation of peak-streamflow frequency is based on the regional regression method.
The current (2008) regional regression equations for 11 regions of Texas are based on log10 transformations
of all regression variables (drainage area, main-channel slope, and watershed shape). Exclusive use of log10
transformation does not fully linearize the relations between the variables. As a result, some systematic bias
remains in the current equations. The bias results in overestimation of peak streamflow for both the smallest and
largest watersheds. The bias increases with increasing recurrence interval. The primary source of the bias is the
discernible curvilinear relation in log10 space between peak streamflow and drainage area. Bias is demonstrated
by selected residual plots with superimposed LOWESS trend lines.
To address the bias, a statistical framework based on minimization of the PRESS statistic through power
transformation of drainage area is described and implemented, and the resulting regression equations are
reported. Compared to log10-exclusive equations, the equations derived from PRESS minimization have
PRESS statistics and residual standard errors less than the log10-exclusive equations. Selected residual plots
for the PRESS-minimized equations are presented to demonstrate that systematic bias in regional regression
equations for peak-streamflow frequency estimation in Texas can be reduced. Because the overall error is
similar to the error associated with previous equations and because the
Key Words:
bias is reduced, the PRESS-minimized equations reported here provide
flood Frequency, peak streamflow,
alternative equations for peak-streamflow frequency estimation.
Texas
RMC 5 114
Prediction of Embankment Settlement Over Soft Soils
The method currently used by TxDOT to determine the increase in in-situ stress is comparable to the Osterberg
method and is acceptable. The approach used by the TxDOT to determine the preconsolidation pressure is
acceptable (Casagrande Method).
Total settlement has been estimated by TxDOT based on very limited consolidation tests. Since the increase in
in-situ stresses due to the embankment is relatively small (generally less than the preconsolidation pressure),
using the proper recompression index is import. Since there is a hysteresis loop during the unloading-reloading
of the soft CH clays, three recompression indices (Cr1, Cr2, and Cr3) have been identified. Review of the TxDOT
design indicates that there is no standard procedure to select the recompression index. It is being recommended
to use recompression index Cr1 to determine the settlement up to the preconsolidation pressure.
The procedure used by TxDOT to determine the rate of settlement is not acceptable. In determining the rate
of settlement, the thickness of the entire soil mass must be used with the average soil properties and not the
layering method. The layered approach will not satisfy the drainage conditions needed to use in the time factor
formula and determine the appropriate coefficient of consolidation.
The consolidation parameters (Cc, Cr, Cv) are all stress dependent. Hence, when selecting representative
parameters for determining the total and rate of settlement, expected stress increases in the ground should be
considered.
The 1-D consolidation theory predicted continuous consolidation settlement in both the embankments
investigated. The predicted consolidation settlements were comparable to the consolidation settlement measured
in the field. The pore water pressure measurements in some cases did not indicate consolidation because they
may have been located close to the bottom drainage. In one case, it indicated excess pore water pressure and
hence consolidation was in progress.
The Active Zone influenced the movements in the edge of the embankments. Movements in the Active Zone
influenced the crack movements in the retaining wall panels.
Constant Rate of Strain (CRS) test can be used to determine the consolidation properties of clay soils. The rate
used in the test influenced the coefficient of consolidation.
The thickness of the soil mass that is influenced by the embankment construction must be determined based
on in-situ stress increase and the consistency of the soil below the embankment. The TCP and undrained shear
strength should be used to determine the consistency of the soil.
Since relatively large variations in the properties can be expected in the deltaic deposits, soil samples must be
obtained for an adequate and representative number of boreholes to determine the consolidation properties.
Based on only two already existing embankment settlements monitoring Key Words:
in the field, 1-D consolidation theory can be used to determine the total active zone, consolidation,
and rate of consolidation. embankment, field tests,
recompression indices, settlement,
Active Zone effects must be considered in designing the edge of the
soft soils
embankment including retaining walls.
CRS must be considered as an alternative method to determine the consolidation properties.
The number of consolidation tests used to determine the consolidation properties of the soils in each project
must be increased. Due to the variability in the properties of deltaic deposited clay soils, it is recommended to
use one consolidation test for each 5 ft within the soft soil layers for settlement analyses.
RMC 5 115
Subdivision of Texas Watersheds for Hydrologic Modeling
0-5822-1 http://www.depts.ttu.edu/techmrtweb/Reports/Complete%20Reports/0-5822.pdf
In general, subdivision of watersheds for modeling results in no more than modest improvements in prediction
of peak discharge. Improvements generally are not observed with more than about five to seven subdivisions.
Watershed subdivision multiplies the number of sub-process model parameters required to model watershed
response and introduces the requirement to route flows through the watershed drainage network. Discrimination
of parameters between sub-watersheds is difficult to justify from a technical perspective.
The introduction of watershed subdivisions requires hydrologic (or hydraulic) routing for movement of
sub-watershed discharges to the watershed outlet. The routing sub-process model requires estimates of
additional parameters that are subject to uncertainty.
Regardless of the subdivision scheme used, little or no change in runoff volume was observed in model output.
Little or no change in predicted peak discharge was observed from the watershed models constructed as part of
the research reported herein.
The dependence of computed hydrographs on internal routing became more apparent as the number of
subdivisions increased.
Application of distributed modeling, as currently implemented in HEC-HMS, was difficult and time-consuming.
It is unclear what technical advantage is gained by application of this modeling approach in an uncalibrated
mode, given the level of effort required to develop the models.
There are settings in which watershed subdivision is appropriate. If one of the sub-watersheds is distinctly
different than other components of the watershed, and if the drainage of that subwatershed is a significant
fraction of the whole, then a subdivision might be appropriate. Specific examples of an appropriate application
of watershed subdivision would be the presence of a reservoir on a tributary stream, a significant difference in
the level of urbanization of one component of a watershed, or a substantial difference in physical characteristics
(main channel slope, overland flow slope, loss characteristics, and so forth).
There is little justification for subdividing a watershed for the purpose of improving model accuracy. Watershed
subdivision increases the number of parameters that must be estimated by the analyst. Furthermore, watershed
subdivision introduces the requirement to route internal flows to the watershed outlet, adding additional
parameters that must be estimated. Unless flow rates are needed at
locations internal to the watershed being modeled, there is little to Key Words:
be gained for the purpose of infrastructure design by subdividing a hydrology, watershed, drainage
watershed. basin, catchment, hydrologic
modeling, hydrologic prediction,
hydrologic design
RMC 5 116
Improved Correlation Between Texas Cone Penetrometer Blow
0-5824-1 Count and Undrained Shear Strength of Soft Clays
An improved correlation was developed based in part on existing correlations. It was determined that even with
a zero (“weight of hammer”) blow count, if the soil can support the weight of the cone, it has some strength.
Thus, an intercept value of 300 psf was adopted and an improved equation proposed.
The improved correlation is recommended over the existing correlations and is intended primarily for soft,
shallow (less than 30 feet) clays with undrained shear strengths of 1200 psf (approximately 0.47 atmospheres)
or less (TCP blow counts of 15 or less). Accordingly, this correlation should be used cautiously. In addition,
higher design undrained shear strengths might be realized with more
Key Words:
extensive field and laboratory testing. Further studies of the improved
soil shear strength, soft clay,
correlation for very soft soils would be useful.
geotechnical engineering,
penetration tests
Texas Cone Penetrometer
RMC 5 117
Characterization of Undrained Shear Strength Profiles for Soft
0-5824-2 Clays at Six Sites in Texas
Unconsolidated-undrained tests generally underestimate strengths. This is believed to be in large part due to
sample disturbance. The degree of sample disturbance can be assessed by relative values of axial strain at 75
percent of peak principal stress difference (ε75%). Although there is significant scatter in the data, the level of
sample disturbance seems unacceptable at ε75% greater than approximately 3 percent. Unconsolidated-undrained
tests on poor quality samples gave strengths that were as low as 25 percent of the strengths from the average
profiles. Unconsolidated-undrained tests on high-quality samples gave strengths that were comparable to the
strengths from the average profiles.
Consolidated-undrained tests can be used to overcome some of the effects of sample disturbance present in
unconsolidated-undrained tests. In the case of consolidated-undrained tests, sample quality can be evaluated
based on the volumetric strain during consolidation to the in-situ effective overburden stress. Strengths of soft
clay specimens experiencing greater than 4 percent volumetric strain were approximately 50 percent higher than
strengths from the average profiles. Strengths of specimens experiencing less than 4 percent volumetric strain
during consolidation were to strengths from the average profiles.
Field vane shear strengths corrected using Bjerrum’s (1972) correction factor produce reasonable strengths in
soft-to-medium, homogenous clays. However, in sandy clays, field vane strengths are likely to be too high.
Piezocone penetration tests can be used to develop reasonably accurate overconsolidation ratio profiles in
intact clays without the use of site-specific correlations. Although the data are limited, the overconsolidation
ratios determined from the results of one-dimensional consolidation tests agreed favorably with the results of
piezocone penetration tests.
A good first- or second-order approximation of undrained shear strength can be made by combining the
overconsolidation ratio and effective overburden stress determined from piezocone penetration tests with
normalized strength relationships. Strengths determined using this approach are a useful supplement to field
vane shear, unconsolidated-undrained, and consolidated-undrained test data. For example, the strengths
determined using this method can be used to identify questionable laboratory test results, to locate seams of
weak material, to establish trends in the rate of increase in undrained strength, or to quantify lateral variability at
a site.
Different test methods for determining undrained shear strengths produce potentially widely ranging strengths.
These differences have been well-identified by past research, and the findings of this study are generally
consistent with this past research. For critical sites, it is recommended that more than one technique be used
to determine an undrained shear strength profile. Utilizing multiple test methods helps to account for issues
such as sample disturbance, strain rate effects, and anisotropy. Even when
different measures of undrained strength are available, there remains a degree Key Words:
of uncertainty; selecting appropriate design strengths still requires exercising soil shear strength, soft clay,
careful judgment. geotechnical engineering,
penetration tests
RMC 5 118
Handling Issues for Lead and Asbestos in Bridge Construction
0-5884-1 http://www.techmrt.ttu.edu/Reports/Complete%20Reports/0-5884-1.pdf
Throughout this project, several common practices were found to be in place nationwide. Some of these
practices include contractual requirements for contractors to comply with all applicable regulations and the
outright handing over of, and thereby responsibility for, excess materials to contractors. Most of these practices
were included as recommendations for TxDOT to implement immediately so as to reduce costs and future
liability.
Other states had suggestions regarding the disposal of ACM and LBP. One of these practices was to encase
ACM in concrete and then dispose of it in a landfill. A disposal method for LBP is to smelt steel members, the
most common form of steel recycling, with any lead-based coatings still in place. This approach, already in
practice by TxDOT, allows the LBP to be removed during the smelting process where it becomes a by-product
of the smelting process. As a by-product, it becomes the responsibility of the smelter/recycler, not TxDOT.
Additionally, smelting LBP in place supports the transfer of ownership of materials to other entities; as such, the
responsibility for the material is also transferred.
Another recommendation from the study is to conduct a study of all bridges in Texas to determine the actual
location, quantity, and nature of both LBP and ACM. Through the course of the phone survey, it was determined
that some states have actively located and removed both LBP and ACM. This ensures these substances will not
be of concern in the event of later bridge projects. This has also resulted in a complete absence of LBP, ACM,
or both, on bridges in those states. Ultimately, early identification of ACM and LBP would help TxDOT during
project planning stages and allow it to set up contracts to abate LBP or ACM in advance, thus preventing future
delays or additional incurred costs.
One of the simplest ways of reducing TxDOT liability is to simply have some form of oversight of contractor
controls and safety protocols used to protect employees from LBP and ACM exposure. The recommended form
of this oversight is to have the contractors submit in writing a copy of all safety practices, engineering controls,
and other protocols employed to protect their workers on a project, with particular guidelines dealing with LBP
and ACM.
Another way to protect worker safety is to use ambient air monitors to determine exact airborne lead levels.
This finding was backed up during the phone survey when it was determined that several states either use their
own ambient air monitors or allow contractors to use ambient air monitors to determine airborne lead levels. Air
monitoring would allow for risk assessment exposure during short projects and may minimize the number of
biological samples needed to assess worker exposure to lead.
The combined results from the phone survey and literature review have been used to form more than a dozen
recommendations for immediate use and future research. The recommendations, if implemented, are intended
to reduce TxDOT’s liabilities and costs, while protecting workers exposed to ACM and LBP during bridge
construction, maintenance and demolition. Additionally, FAQs developed during the
project provide a concise resource answering many commonly asked questions regarding Key Words:
compliance with lead and asbestos regulations. LBP, ACM
RMC 5 119
Development of a Precast Bridge Deck Overhang System for the
0-6100-2 Rock Creek Bridge
Precast, prestressed panels are commonly used at interior beams for bridges in Texas. The use of these
panels provides ease of construction, sufficient capacity, and good economy for the construction of bridges
in Texas. Current practice for the overhang deck sections requires that formwork be constructed. The cost of
constructing the bridge overhang is significantly higher than that of the interior sections where precast panels
are used. The development of a precast overhang system has the potential to improve economy and safety
in bridge construction. This research investigated the overhang and shear capacity of a precast overhang
system for potential use in the Rock Creek Bridge in Parker County, Texas. Grout material characteristics for
the haunch and constructability issues were also addressed. Results indicate that the capacity of the precast
overhang system is sufficient to carry factored AASHTO loads with no or very limited cracking. Results from
the shear study indicate that the shear capacity of threaded rods and threaded rods with couplers is lower than
the conventional R-bar system. However, modifications of the initial design and layout for the end panels
should provide sufficient capacity. A commercial grout has been identified for use in the haunch zone. A
recommendation for the haunch form system for use on the bridge is also provided.
Key Words:
precast, prestressed, bridge
overhang, grout,
constructability, bridge deck panel
Delivered panels exhibited signs of cracking

between the Stage I and II concrete placements,
likely due to differential shrinkage or curling of
the panels.
The design of the shear test specimens was developed in

conjunction with the design and casting of the full-scale testing
components to maximize efficiency and minimize experimental
differences.
RMC 5 120
Phase 1 Report on the Development of Predictive Model for
0-6332-1 Bridge Deck Cracking and Strength Development
In attempting to understand the many factors and forces involved in bridge deck cracking, one must be aware
of the mechanical properties of a given bridge deck system. Obtaining a full understanding of how strength
development, modulus development, and the mechanisms of creep resist the buildup of tensile stresses is
integral in attempting to accurately predict the cracking potential of a bridge deck system.
While it is very important to have an understanding of the failure-inducing stresses that can build up in
a concrete structure, no real progress can be made unless one has a firm grasp of the concrete strength
development that works to resist the stresses. Since the rate of strength development is a temperature dependent
property, maturity methods are needed to calculate the development of mechanical properties. One should also
have a general feel for how different factors, such as the water to cementitious products ratio (w/cm), use of
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), and aggregate type and gradation, play a role in the long and
short-term strength development of concrete.
Finally, understanding the empirical relationships between compressive strength, tensile strength, modulus of
elasticity development, and the development of creep behavior will allow the researcher to predict the concrete’s
ability to resist tensile stress over time.
Several factors can have effects on the development of compressive and tensile strength. Water/cement ratio is
commonly used as the main predictor for concrete strength, with high w/cms producing lower strength concrete,
and higher w/cms producing stronger concrete. This is primarily achieved through the reduction in capillary
porosity within the concrete. Lower w/cms also result in a faster strength development rate than high w/cm
mixtures. Use of SCMs can also play a large role in determining the strength of concrete. In general, pozollanic
admixtures, such as Class F fly ash, slow the rate of early-age strength gain, but increase the strength of
concrete at later ages. Aggregates are typically thought to have minor effects on concrete compressive strength.
In tensile strength and fracture properties, however, it holds more importance.
Concrete strength development is a product of the hydration of cement particles in a concrete mixture. From the
moment water comes into contact with cement, hydration reactions take place that will, over time, transform a
fluid mixture into a hardened structure. The development of this strength is dependent on the concrete degree of
hydration and temperature development. Maturity methods are used to compare the cement hydration progress
made at different temperatures. The two most commonly used maturity methods are the Nurse-Saul method
and the Equivalent Age method. Once the maturity has been determined, models can then be used to predict the
compressive strength development of the concrete mixture.
Once compressive strength development has been generated, models can be used to predict the development
of elastic modulus. This value is especially important in the context of bridge deck cracking, allowing the
researcher to correlate the various volume change mechanisms that are occurring with the stresses that the
changes generate.
In the case of bridge deck cracking, proper modeling of concrete tensile strength is of great importance. Without
a good model for tensile strength development, the engineer cannot determine whether or not the volume
changes, and resulting stresses, occurring within a concrete system are significant enough to produce cracking.
Though cracking causes are numerous and interrelated, there are some methods for modeling bridge deck
systems that attempt to predict whether a bridge deck will be susceptible to cracking during its lifespan. While
most of these models only present a simplified approach to the bridge deck cracking problem, usually taking
into account one or two specific factors, they are a good place to start from in
Key Words:
the attempt to make a model that takes into account all the mechanisms affecting
early-age cracking, drying
a bridge deck system.
shrinkage, bridge decks
RMC 5 121
Texas Department of Transportation
Research and Technology Implementation Of ce
P.O. Box 5080
Austin, Texas 78763-5080
Telephone: 512-465-7403
Fax: 512-465-7486

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RMC 1 - Construction and Maintenance

An Example of Data for Characterizing Climatic and Soil Variations

Crushed Gravel Particles

Natural Gravel Particles

Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) Operation and Extruded DSM Columns

An Image of Air Void

X-ray Computed Tomography: X-ray CT is a nondestructive test

Correlation analysis amongst the tests was performed.

It is recommended that software should be developed to convert the Key Words:

Feasibility Study of Scanning Laser Systems for Measuring Seal

Expert System Design Guide for Lower Classification Roads

Cross Stitching Distress on US 59

Slab Segment Showing Horizontal Cracking at

Crack Sealant Clamp and Clamped Test Specimen

The voids-in-the-mineral-aggregate criteria in current specifications should be evaluated specifically to validate

Corner Cracked Areas Beginning to

Patched Corner Crack Areas Near Outside Wheelpath of Test

Application Site Manager Projects

LTPP Test Sections across Texas

Excellent skid resistance results were obtained on most of these projects.

Performance of Image Processing

The Overlay Tester and

Map of State DOTs that Participated in Interviews

Curb width of 24 in. or higher is recommended to provide adequate structural capacity.

Prototype Profiler Module Mounted in Front of Test Vehicle

Testing of Prismatic Specimens in Direct Tension for CMSE

Riprap used for Erosion Control

The flexible-wall hydraulic conductivity test is used for evaluating

None of the grass species examined in this project were found to be

Dense and Tall Grasses on Existing Plots

Point Intercept Frame

Utility Accommodation and Conflict Tracker (UACT) User

What findings led researchers to the development of UACT?

This project produced 13 sustainable transportation performance measures. Researchers developed

Study Section Near Downtown San Antonio

Predicted Counts for all Short Period Traffic

Statewide Planning Map Web Interface

Αdd standardized certification and disclaimer text labels to geospatial documents.

Μodify Form ROW-MapCheck to address electronic file delivery requirements.

Require the submission of right of way feature data in GIS format.

Lead-Free Thermoplastic Installation

Pictures from 0-4703-P4 Interim Roadway Safety

Example of Preferred Treatment

Example of the use of Both a

New Post Connection Design

Testing a Bridge Rail System

If a toll facility is shown on the graphic display, drivers will assume

Performance Measurement Process

Data Logger System

Example of Flexible Roll-Up Work Zone Speed Limit Sign

Nighttime Oncoming Vehicle Testing

Example of a Bicycle Lane with Adjacent

Estimated centerline encroachments decreased by approximately 78 percent.

The variability in lateral lane position decreased by approximately 38 percent.

Neither PMD treatment achieved a significant difference in mean vehicle speed.

Estimated centerline encroachments decreased by approximately 88 to 93 percent.