LESSON 1: PHILOSOPHY 1.

Appetitive Soul - Driven by physical desires and

pleasures.
What is Philosophy? 2. Spirited Soul - Represents courage and
competitiveness.
Philosophy is the study of acquiring knowledge through 3. Rational Soul - Responsible for conscious
rational thinking and inquiries that involve answering decisions and future planning.
questions regarding the nature and existence of man and
the world we live in.
ST. AUGUSTINE
What is Self?
 A saint and philosopher of the church.
The self is defined as “a unified being, essentially  Believed that God’s teachings influence all
connected to consciousness, awareness, and agency (or, aspects of life.
at least, with the faculty of rational choice).”  Emphasized that understanding oneself is tied to
PHILOSOPHERS one’s relationship with God.
SOCRATES Key Ideas:

 Known as the first martyr of education,  Humans are created in God’s likeness but are
knowledge, and philosophy. still far from true unity with Him.
 His philosophy emphasizes the importance of  Rejected the academy’s skepticism but valued
"knowing oneself." personal perception in accepting ideas.
 Believed that accepting one’s ignorance is a form  Believed that aligning with God defines our
of depravity. existence and role in the world.
 Understanding oneself involves introspection,
examining strengths, weaknesses, likes, and RENE DESCARTES
dislikes.
 A French philosopher, regarded as the "Father of
Socratic Method (Socratic Conversation): Modern Philosophy."
 Advocated for dualism: the separation of mind
 A teaching method that involves asking and and body.
answering questions to stimulate critical thinking.  Developed the "methodical doubt," questioning
 Both teacher and student play active roles in this everything to understand the self.
process.
Famous Statement:
Key Ideas:
 Cogito ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am").
 Happiness is the ultimate goal in life, achieved by
knowing oneself. Key Ideas:
 He died as a martyr, charged with corrupting
minors and opposing ignorance and narrow-  The mind processes and questions bodily
mindedness. experiences.
 Senses can be deceptive, so we should trust the
PLATO mind for self-awareness.
 Doubting one’s existence is proof of existence.
 A student of Socrates, known as the "Father of
Academy." JOHN LOCKE
 His academy became the foundation of modern
schools and education.  An English philosopher and physician, known as
 Wrote about politics, human nature, virtue, and the "Father of Classical Liberalism."
intelligence.  Introduced the concept of Tabula Rasa (blank
 Believed that those who pursue truth and wisdom slate).
are moral and ethical, resisting vices.
Key Ideas:
Divisions of the Soul:
  A person is born without knowledge and learns GILBERT RYLE
through experiences.
 Perceptions and observations shape who we  Believed the self is reflected in behavior, actions,
become. and emotions.
DAVID HUME Key Ideas:

 A Scottish philosopher focused on empiricism,  Mind and body are not separate entities.
skepticism, and naturalism.  Introduced the "ghost in the machine" concept,
where the self is the behavior exhibited by the
Key Ideas: person.

 The self is a collection of impressions based on PAUL CHURCHLAND

experiences.
 No permanent self exists, as impressions evolve  A Canadian philosopher focused on "eliminative
over time. materialism."
IMMANUEL KANT Key Ideas:

 A German philosopher who worked on  The self is defined by brain activity.

empiricism and rationalism.  Neural pathways and their movements determine
behavior and identity.
Key Ideas:
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
 The self is defined by impressions, emotions, and
behavior.  A French philosopher who worked on
 Introduced "transcendental apperception," a existentialism and phenomenology.
sense that synthesizes experiences to define the
self. Key Ideas:
SIGMUND FREUD  Mind and body are unified entities.
 Perception is influenced by experiences and
 An Austrian physiologist, known as the "Father of guides behavior.
Psychoanalysis."  Actions, behavior, and language reflect one’s
perception of the world.
Aspects of Personality:
THOMAS AQUINAS
1. ID - Driven by pleasure and self-gratification.
2. Superego - Represents conscience and morality.  A 13th-century philosopher who emphasized the
3. Ego - Mediates between the ID and Superego. duality of man.
Levels of Consciousness: Key Ideas:
1. Conscious - Easily accessible memories.  Matter (Hyle): The physical substance shared
2. Pre-Conscious - Memories requiring some effort with other beings.
to recall.  Form (Morphe): The soul, which defines
3. Unconscious - Deeply stored memories, often humanity.
inaccessible.  The soul animates the body, making humans
distinct.
Key Ideas:

 Past experiences shape actions.

 People are driven by avoiding pain and seeking
pleasure.
LESSON 2: SOCIOLOGY Advocated for an industrial state directed
by science, where universal association
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD would suppress war.
2. Governance:
 Sociologist from the University of Chicago.
 Known for the Symbolic Interactionist  Men who can organize society for
Perspective. productive labor should govern it.
3. Social Aim:
Theory of Self  Produce things useful to life.
1. Two Parts of the Self:  Proposed a "society of science," which
greatly influenced Auguste Comte.
 Self-awareness and Self-image:
 Our physical bodies age HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)
biologically, but the "self"
emerges through social
 Known for Synthetic Philosophy, which
interaction.
integrates physical, psychological, biological,
 The self develops over time as
sociological, and ethical realms.
we grow and interact with others.
 The self is reflected in how others
perceive and react to us. Moral Philosophy
2. Development of Self: 1. Social Statistics:
 Imitation: Putting ourselves in others'  Happiness is achieved when individuals
shoes and imagining how they perceive satisfy their needs without infringing on
situations. others' rights.
 Generalized Others: Internalizing  Deriving pleasure from the happiness of
widespread cultural norms, mores, and others is essential.
expectations of behavior. 2. Principles of Ethics:
 Self-awareness emerges by "taking the
 Moral laws align with natural laws.
role of the other."
Humans should obey these laws instead
of creating social systems that violate
The "I" and "Me" of the Self them.
 Violating social or natural laws leads to
 "I": The spontaneous, active part of the self that long-term societal problems.
interacts with the world. 3. Laissez-Faire Capitalism:
 "Me": The self as an object, shaped by societal
interaction and reflection.  Moral and economic laws reflect
biological competition.
HENRI DE SAINT-SIMON (1760-1825)  War, while destructive, allows more
organized societies to dominate less
organized ones, advancing social
 Historical founder of French Socialism. complexity.
 Originator of ideas later developed by Comte
(Comtism).
DAVID EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
Key Ideas
 French sociologist; a key figure in establishing
1. Reconstruction of Society: sociology as a discipline.
 Influenced by the French Revolution and  Examined how societies maintain integrity in
feudal/military systems. modernity.
 Called for the reorganization of society
with industrial chiefs in control. Key Contributions
 Believed spiritual direction should shift 1. Sociology of Knowledge:
from the medieval church to modern
scientists.  Logical concepts arise from social life
and differ across societies.
 2. Collective Representations: MAX WEBER (1864-1920)
Symbols, beliefs, and values created

through intense social interaction.  German sociologist; explored the relationship
 Represent collective ideas but are between religion and capitalism.
controlled by society as a whole.
3. Language: Key Ideas
1. Protestant Ethic and Capitalism:
 A social product containing accumulated
knowledge and history.  Capitalism emerged from Protestant
 Structures and shapes our perception of work ethics but later detached from its
reality. religious roots.
2. "Iron Cage":
ALBERT BANDURA (1925)
 Society traps individuals in systems of
efficiency and control.
 Developed Social Learning Theory. 3. Teaching Philosophy:
Key Ideas  Focus on the subject itself rather than
personal interpretations.
1. Socialization and Self-Development:
 Identity forms through modeling behavior LEWIS MORGAN
in response to societal expectations.
 Behaviors develop through  Ethnographer of the Iroquois and proponent of
reinforcement and encouragement. Social Evolution Theory.
2. Self-Efficacy:
 Belief in one's ability to influence events Key Contributions
and achieve goals.
 High self-efficacy leads to resilience, 1. Kinship Relations:
motivation, and commitment despite  Fundamental to societal structure and
failures. social progress.
2. Social Evolution:
Sources of Self-Efficacy  Societal progress links to technological,
family, and property development.
1. Mastery Experience: Building confidence
through successful experiences. LESSON 3: ANTHROPOLOGY
2. Vicarious Experience: Observing similar others
succeed. What is Anthropology?
3. Social Persuasion: Encouragement enhances Anthropology is a relatively new discipline in the debate
effort and persistence. on selfhood. Emerging during the imperial ambitions of
4. Psychological Responses: Interpreting European states in the eighteenth and nineteenth
emotional states as signs of capability. centuries, it initially aimed to identify the weaknesses of
other cultures for exploitation and subjugation. By the late
KARL MARX (1818-1881) nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, anthropology
shifted focus to the fundamental question: What does it
 Introduced the Theory of mean to be human?
Self-Estrangement/Self-Alienation.
Anthropology uniquely approaches selfhood by
emphasizing the group as both the starting point and
Key Ideas
endpoint of analysis. The self is seen as a socially
defined phenomenon, shaped by the interplay of
 Alienation occurs when individuals feel individual expression and group influence. Humans stand
disconnected from society and their work. out for their exceptional capacity for group living and the
 Loss of meaning in work leads to a diminished creation of social institutions, making anthropology crucial
sense of self. to discussions of selfhood.
Key Concepts and Theories 1. Focus on cultural differences:
 Instead of searching for universal traits,
MARCEL MAUSS human nature is better analyzed by
observing cultural differences over time
 French anthropologist who tackled the paradox of and space.
remaining oneself while adapting to various 2. Culture reveals human nature:
social contexts.  Culture connects human potential with
 Proposed the two faces of self: actual behavior, which helps define
1. Moi: Refers to a person’s biological humanity.
givenness—their body and basic identity. 3. Culture as symbolic patterns:
2. Personne: Reflects the social aspects of  Culture is the "accumulated totality" of
identity, shaped by institutions, family, symbolic patterns that appear across
religion, nationality, and societal societies.
expectations.
LESSON 4: PSYCHOLOGY
Total Social Phenomenon:
Psychology examines both the physiological (physical
 Proposed by Mauss, this concept emphasizes processes of an organism) and the cognitive (thinking
that all sectors of a society or community must processes of an organism). Learning psychology helps in
cooperate to achieve balanced living. understanding one’s own behavior and provides useful
insights into those behaviors.
LANGUAGE The word "psychology" originates from two Greek words:
 Language is deeply intertwined with culture and  Psyche: Soul or mind
profoundly influences the crafting of the self.  Logos: Study
 A self born into a specific culture must adjust
according to its societal and linguistic exposure. Literally, psychology once meant the study of the soul,
but it now refers to the study of the mind. Psychology
Key Points about Language and Culture: focuses on:
1. Language points to specific cultural groups.  Understanding who and what we are.
Interacting with a language means engaging with  Exploring why we act and think in specific
the culture that speaks it. ways.
2. To fully understand a culture, one must access  Recognizing our potential as individuals.
its language.
3. Learning a language involves more than The field primarily examines behavior and mental
grammar and vocabulary; it also requires processes while focusing on the individual’s cognitive
understanding the society’s customs and functions and other influencing factors.
behavior.
4. Language learning or teaching must reference WHO AM I?
the culture it belongs to, as language is deeply
ingrained in culture. Many people say, "I am who I am," but this statement
invites the deeper question: Who are you that makes you
who you are?
CLIFFORD GEERTZ
The Concept of the "Self"
 An American cultural anthropologist who defined The term "self" refers to the sense of personal identity
culture as "a system of inherited conceptions and individuality (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014).
expressed in symbolic forms by means of which
men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their Key Definitions:
knowledge about and attitudes towards life."
 Identity: The individual’s concept of themselves,
Key Premises from Geertz’s Work (“The Impact of the often referred to as self-identity.
Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man” in The  Self-Identity: What individuals believe and feel
Interpretation of Cultures, 1966): about themselves, influenced by how others
perceive them.
Self-Development is a lifelong process. As one grows,  Hearing your name captures your attention.
their sense of self may evolve.  Hearing someone speak your dialect piques your
Self-Representation impacts socio-emotional functioning interest.
throughout life.  If you identify as a book lover, bookstores might
draw your attention in a mall.

Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR)

WILLIAM JAMES (1890)
This term, attributed to Carl Rogers, refers to accepting
William James, an early psychologist, studied the self and and supporting someone exactly as they are, without
described it as having two aspects: judgment.
1. The "I": IDENTITY AND SELF-CONCEPT
 The thinking, acting, and feeling self. Identity
 Represents individuality, spontaneity,
and impulsivity. Composed of personal characteristics, social roles, and
 Non-reflective and exists in the moment.
affiliations that define who one is.
2. The "Me": Self-Concept
 The social self, shaped by interactions How someone thinks about or perceives themselves.
with others.
Roles
 Includes physical and psychological
characteristics that define who you are. Roles are part of identity (e.g., family birth order,
occupation, or academic standing).
Further Clarification by James: Key Features of SELF, IDENTITY, and SELF-
CONCEPT:
 The "Me" is a product of reflection and
interaction.
 The "I" is the response to the attitudes of  These are not fixed in time.
others.  They evolve as one grows and experiences life.
 Example: "Don’t wait for ME; I will be gone for a Example:
long time."  Past: "I was a varsity player in 5th grade."
 Present: "I am a college student."
James also stated that:  Future: "I want to be a politician."

 The "I" creates individuality. Think of self as malleable metal—firm but capable of
 The "Me" reflects societal influence. change.
 “The greatest discovery of my generation is that EXPERIENCES OF THE SELF
human beings can alter their lives by altering
their attitudes of the mind.” The self-concept includes two experiences:

1. Existential Self: Recognizing oneself as unique

(e.g., Rumi’s question: Who am I in the midst of
CARL ROGERS all this thought traffic?).
2. Categorical Self: Focusing on visible
Carl Rogers shared a similar understanding: characteristics (e.g., gender, age).
 The I-Self: The one who acts and decides (e.g.,
walking, eating, writing).
 The Me-Self: Reflects on oneself as an object SELF-CONCEPT
(e.g., "I am athletic").
Self-concept is composed of three parts:
Self-Schema 1. Self-Image (Real Self): Who you are now (e.g.,
Our organized system of knowledge about who we are, a student struggling academically but passionate
which evolves over time. about sports).
Examples:
 2. Ideal Self: Who you aspire to be, based on life CARVER AND SCHEIER (1981)
experiences, values, and societal influences.
3. Ought Self: Who you feel you should be (e.g., a Two types of self-awareness:
responsible student).
1. Private Self: Thoughts and feelings.
Incongruence: 2. Public Self: Presentation to others.
Discrepancies between these elements can lead to
negative emotions. Resolving such conflicts fosters SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS
growth.
Excessive self-awareness can lead to concern over being
judged. In groups, individuals may experience
deindividuation, losing self-awareness and
FREUD’S CONTRIBUTIONS accountability.
Sigmund Freud, founder of psychoanalysis, emphasized
the role of unconscious desires and societal influences.
Key Concepts: KEY PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
 Psychoanalysis: Unpacking unconscious
conflicts through dialogue.
 Personality Structure:  Self-Actualization: Reaching one’s full potential.
 Id: Primitive urges.  Self-Esteem: Evaluating oneself positively or
 Ego: Rational mind. negatively.
 Superego: Moral compass.
By examining the self, psychology reveals how individual
Freud believed personality is shaped by both internal and growth and social interactions shape identity and
societal factors. behavior.
TRUE SELF VS. FALSE SELF

 True Self: The core of who you are, unshaped LESSON 5: THE SELF IN WESTERN
by societal pressures. AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHT
 False Self: The adapted self, molded to fit
societal expectations. Edward T. Hall’s quote emphasizes the importance of
exploring other cultures:
SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY "One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is
by taking seriously the cultures of others. It forces you to
Self-esteem is influenced by comparing oneself with pay attention to those details of life which differentiate
others. them from you."
Types of Social Comparison:

1. Downward Comparison: Boosting self-esteem CONCEPT OF SELF

by comparing to those worse off.
The concept of the self is analyzed through various
2. Upward Comparison: Comparing to those
cultural sources:
better off, which may inspire or lower self-
esteem.
1. Literature: Depictions of heroes and villains
Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory: differ between countries (e.g., USA, China,
Korea).
 Distance from outperformers. 2. Socialization: Differences in how hierarchies
 Reevaluate the skill's importance. (e.g., boss-subordinate relationships) are viewed.
 Improve to address the disparity. 3. Art, Dance, and Clothing: These can provide
cultural insights into the self.
4. Cultural Diversity:
  Westerners: Focus on independence SELF-DESCRIPTION
and self-reliance.
 Easterners: Emphasize harmony, group Western Self-Description
success, and sensitivity to others'
feelings.  Focus on personal attributes (e.g., skills,
abilities, personality traits).

Eastern Self-Description
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WESTERN AND
EASTERN THOUGHTS  Emphasize social roles or specific situations
that bring out positive traits.
Western Thoughts

 Place higher value on personal rights and

individualism. SELF-EVALUATION
 Seek to discover and prove the truth.
 Tend to view the world through dualities (e.g., Western Self-Evaluation
self vs. others, creator vs. creation).
 Highlight personal achievements and successes.
Eastern Thoughts
Eastern Self-Evaluation
 Value social responsibility and harmony.
 Accept the reality of life and aim to maintain  Keep a low profile, as self-promotion is seen as
balance. boastful and disruptive to social harmony.
 Embrace interconnectedness, seeing others as
part of the self.

INDIVIDUALISTIC VS. COLLECTIVIST

Western (Individualistic)
VALUES
Western Values  Focus on the individual rather than the group.
 Personal accomplishments and attributes are
 Emphasize equality, allowing individuals to rise prioritized.
above others.
 Encourage "fair" competition to protect individual Eastern (Collectivist)
rights.
 Example:  Focus on the group and its harmony.
 Westerners may call seniors (e.g.,  Roles within the group define the self.
bosses, parents) by their first names and  Self-promotion is avoided to maintain
confront issues directly. relationships.

Eastern Values

 Emphasize hierarchy to maintain order and WESTERN VS. EASTERN PHILOSOPHERS

harmony (Qingxue, 2003).
Confucianism
 Example:
 Asians often use respectful terms for
seniors and avoid directly challenging  Founder: Confucius (551-479 BCE).
authority.  Focuses on harmonious social life, where the
individual’s identity is intertwined with the
community.
 Promotes a subdued self, where personal
needs are repressed for the good of society.
 Core Values:
 1. Filial Piety: Respect for elders.  Western culture emphasizes independence,
2. Humaneness: Goodness and personal achievements, and truth-seeking.
compassion.  Eastern culture prioritizes harmony, group
3. Ritual: Proper conduct. cohesion, and balance in life.
 Virtues: Both approaches provide valuable insights into
understanding the nature of the self, highlighting
 Ren: Benevolence. how culture deeply influences identity and
 Yi: Righteousness. behavior.
 Li: Propriety.
 Zhi: Knowledge.
 Xin: Integrity.

Taoism (Daoism)

 Founder: Lao-Tzu (6th century BCE).

 Advocates living in harmony with the Tao
(Universe).
 Emphasizes simplicity, acceptance, and balance.
 Three Treasures (Essential Energies):
1. Jing: Essence.
2. Qi: Energy.
3. Shen: Spirit.
 Promotes the concept of harmony with nature
and others, represented by the Yin-Yang
symbol.

Buddhism

 Originated in India and emphasizes overcoming

suffering and escaping the cycle of death and
rebirth.
 Goal: Attain Nirvana by renouncing the self and
attachments.
 Marks of Existence:
1. Impermanence (Anicca): Everything is
in constant flux.
2. Suffering (Dukkha): Life involves
unsatisfactoriness.
3. Non-Self (Anatta): Denies the existence
of a permanent self.
 Teachings of Gautama Buddha:

 All beings are conditioned by causes.

 Attachment and desire lead to suffering.
 Liberation comes from renouncing
attachments and realizing there is no "I,"
"Me," or "Mine."

SUMMARY
The self in Western and Eastern thought reflects distinct
cultural priorities: