ARMY PUBLIC SCHOOL DELHI CANTT

CLASS – X
(2021 – 22)
SUB – PHYSICS

SYLLABUS: TERM I
CH-LIGHT -REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
CH-HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD
CH- LIGHT-REFLECTION &REFRACTION

NATURE OF LIGHT

1. Light travels in a straight line.

2. Light gets reflected when it falls on polished surfaces; like mirrors.

3. Light suffers refraction when it travels from one medium to another.

4. There is a change in the wavelengths of light when it moves from one medium into
another.

REFLECTION

Reflection of Light: The phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same medium by
the smooth surface is called reflection.

The bouncing back of light when it strikes a smooth or polished surface is called reflection
of light. Reflection is of two types; Specular or regular and Diffuse or irregular reflection.

Laws of Reflection

reflection. Mathematically, we have ∠i = ∠r.

i) Angle of incidence is always equal. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of

(ii) Incident ray, normal and reflected ray all lie in the same plane.

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Incident light: Light which falls on the surface is called incident light.

Reflected light: Light which goes back after reflection is called reflected light.

The angle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal.

An angle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Mirror: The surface which can reflect the light is a mirror.

Plane Mirror: If the reflecting surface is a plane, then the mirror is plane.

1. The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.

2. The image is unmagnified, virtual and erect.
3. The image has right-left reversal.

 Focal length of a plane mirror is infinity.

 Power of a plane mirror is zero.

 If a plane mirror is turned by an angle, the reflected ray turns by 2θ.

 The least size of a plane mirror to view an object is equal to half the size of the
object.

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 Real image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, actually meet at a point,
then the image formed by these rays is said to be real. Real images can be obtained on a
screen.

Virtual image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, appear to meet at a
point, then the image formed by these rays is said to be virtual. Virtual images can’t be
obtained on a screen.

Spherical Mirror: If the reflecting surface is part of the hollow sphere, then the mirror is a
spherical mirror.
The spherical mirror is of two types:

 Convex mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is convex. It diverges the light
so it is also called a diverging mirror.
 Concave mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is concave. It converges the
light so it is also called converging mirror.

Parameters of Mirror:

1. Pole (Vertex): The central point of a mirror is called its pole.

2. Centre of curvature: The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called the
centre of curvature. It is denoted by C.

3. Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called the
radius of curvature. It is denoted by R.

4. Principal axis: The straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of the
mirror is called the principal axis.

5. Principal focus: It is a point on the principal axis at which the rays parallel to the
principal axis meet after reflection or seem to come from. For a concave mirror, the focus lies
in front of the mirror and for a convex mirror, it lies behind the mirror. In short, a concave
mirror has a real focus while a convex mirror has a virtual focus.

6. Focal plane: A plane, drawn perpendicular to the principal axis and passing through the
principal focus.

7. Focal length: The distance between the pole and the focus is called the focal length. It is
represented by f. The focal length is half the radius of curvature.

8. Aperture: The size of the mirror is called its aperture. It is also defined as the effective
diameter of the light reflecting area of the mirror.

Special Rays for Formation of Image:

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A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a spherical mirror, after reflection
converges or diverges from focus.

A ray of light passing through or appearing from the centre of curvature of spherical mirror is
reflected back along the same path.

A ray of light passing through or appearing from the focus of spherical mirror becomes
parallel to the principal axis.

A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a spherical mirror is reflected back making
same angle with principal axis.

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The position of the image for various positions of the object for a concave mirror is as shown
in thetable below

The position of the image for various positions of the object for a convex mirror is as shown
in the table below. The table also shows the use of the mirror for different positions of the
object.

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Use of Concave Mirror: It is used as a makeup mirror, the reflector in torches, in headlights
of cars and searchlights, doctor’s head-mirrors, solar furnace, etc

Use of Convex Mirror: : It is used as rare view mirror. It is used in shops for surveillance. It
is used in T junction in roads.

Sign Conventions of Spherical Mirror

 All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror as the origin.
 Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive.
 Distances measured opposite to the direction of incident rays are taken as
negative.
 Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as
positive.
 Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken
as negative.
where f, v and u are focal length, image distance, object
distance

1.For mirrors, the following results hold:

u is – ve, if the object is in front of the mirror.
(Real object)
u is + ve, if the object is behind the mirror.
(Virtual object)
v is – ve, if the image is in front of the mirror.
(Real image)
vis +ve, if the image is behind the mirror.
(Virtual image)
Focal length of a concave mirror is taken as – ve. Focal length of a convex mirror is taken as
+ve.

2.When the image formed by a spherical mirror is real, it is also inverted and is on the same
side of the mirror as the object. Since both v and u are negative, the magnification is negative.

3. When the image formed by a spherical mirror is virtual, it is also erect and is on the other
side of the mirror as the object. In this case, u is – ve and v is + ve , therefore, m is positive.

4.. If m is positive, the image is erect w.r.t the object and if m is negative, the image is
inverted w.r.t. the object

Linear Magnification: This is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.

where m = magnification, h = height of image, h’ = height of object

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Use of Convex Mirror: Convex mirror used as rear-view mirror in vehicles, as shop security
mirrors, etc.

REFRACTION

Refraction of Light: The bending of light at the interface of two different mediums is called
Refraction of light.

 If the velocity of light in medium is more, then medium is called optical rarer.
Example, air or vacuum is more optical rarer.
 If the velocity of light in medium is less, then medium is called optical denser.
Example, glass is denser than air.

Refractive Index: It represents the amount or extent of bending of light when it passes from
one medium to another.
There are two types of refractive index

 Relative refractive index and

 Absolute refractive index.

Refractive index of medium with respect to other medium is called Relative Refractive Index.
Refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 =
Speed of light in medium2 (V2) / Speed of light in medium1(V1)
Refractive index of medium with respect to air or vacuum is called Absolute Refractive
Index.
Absolute refractive index of medium (m)

If wng is the refractive index of glass w.r.t. water, ang be the refractive index of glass w.r.t. air
and anw be the refractive index of water w.r.t. air ,then

Incident ray: It is incoming ray on the refracting surface.

Refracted ray: It is an outgoing ray from the refracting surface.

An angle of incidence (i): It is the angle between incident rays and perpendicular line
(normal) at the point of incidence.

An angle of refraction (r): It is the angle between refracted rays and perpendicular line
(normal) at the point of incidence.

Law of Refraction: According to this law

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  “The incident ray, refracted ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane.”
 “The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant.”

(Constant (µ))

Lens: The transparent refracting medium bounded by two surfaces in which at least one
surface is curved is called lens.
Lenses are mainly two type

 Convex lens and

 Concave lens.

Centre of Curvature: The centres of two spheres, of which lens is part is called the centre of
curvature.

Radii of Curvature: The radii of spheres, of which lens is part is called radius of curvature.

Principal Axis: The line joining the centres of curvature of two surfaces of lens is called
principal axis.

Optical Centre: It is a special point on the principal axis. Light incident on the optical centre
passes through the lens without deviation.

Principal Focus: The point on the principal axis at which all incident rays parallel to the
principal axis converge or appear to diverge after refraction through the lens.

Aperture: The effective width of a lens through which refraction takes place is called the
aperture.

Special Rays for Image Formation by Lens:

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  An incident ray, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction passes through (or
appears to come from), second focus of the lens.
 An incident ray, passing through the optical centre of the lens, goes un deviated
from the lens.
 An incident ray, passing through the (first) principal focus of the lens, or
directed toward it, becomes parallel to the principal axis after refraction through
lens.

IMAGE FORMATION IN CONVEX LENS

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Image formation by a concave lens.

Use of Lens: In photographic cameras, magnifying glass, microscope, telescope, the human
eye.

For the two lenses, the sign conventions take the form

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  u is- ve, if the object is in front of the lens. (Real object)
 u is +ve, if the object is virtual.
 v is – ve, if the image is on the same side as that of the object. (Virtual image)
 v is +ve, if the image is real.
 Focal length of a concave lens is taken as – ve.
 Focal length of a convex lens is taken as +ve.

Lens formula for convex lens

The linear magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the image
(h’) to the size of the object (h). It is represented by m i.e.,

If the magnification of a lens is negative, then the image formed is inverted and real.

If the magnification of a lens is positive, then the image formed is erect and virtual.

Power is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length. Power is measured in dioptre.

HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM:
Prism is a transparent medium bounded by any number of surfaces in such a way that the
surface on which light is incident and the surface from which light emerges are plane and non
parallel.

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Angle of Deviation(D) The angle between the incident ray and emergent ray.

Dispersion of white light by a Glass Prism

Splitting of White Light into Band of Colours The band of the coloured components of light
beam is called Spectrum i.e. VIBGYOR
The splitting of light into its component colours is called Dispersion.

The different component colour of light bends at different angle with respect to incident
angle, the red light bends the least while the violet bends most.
ISSAC NEWTON: He was the first, who obtained spectrum of sunlight by using glass
prism. He tried to split the spectrum of white light more by using another similar prism, but
he could not get any more colours. He repeated the experiment using second prism in an
inverted position with respect to the first prism. Allowed all the colours of spectrum to pass
through second prism. He found white light emerges on the other side of second prism.

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RAINBOW It is the spectrum of sunlight in nature It is formed due to the dispersion of
sunlight by the tiny water droplet, present in atmosphere.
It refracts and disperses the incident sunlight, then reflects it internally(internal reflection)
and finally refracts it again, when it emerges out of the water droplet. A rainbow is always
formed in a direction opposite to that of sun. Due to dispersion and internal reflection of light,
different colours reach he observer’s eye. Red colour appears on top & violet at the bottom of
rainbow

Atmospheric Refraction
1. Apparent Star Position : It is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight. The
temperature and density of different layers of atmosphere keeps varying. Hence, we
have different medium. Distant star act as point source of light. When the starlight
enters the earth’s atmosphere it undergoes refraction continuously, due to changing
refractive index i.e. from Rarer to denser, it bends towards the normal. Due to this the
apparent position of the star is different from actual position. The star appears higher
than its actual position.
2. Twinkling of Star: It is also due to atmospheric refraction. Distant star act like a
point source of light. As the beam of starlight keeps deviating from its path, the
apparent position of star keeps on changing because physical condition of earth’s
atmosphere is not stationary Hence the amount of light enters our eyes fluctuate some
time bright and sometime faint. This is the “Twinkling effect of star

Scattering of light
Tyndall Effect: When a beam of light strikes, the minute particle of earth’s atmosphere,
suspended particles of dust and molecule of air the path of beam become visible. The

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phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particle gives rise to Tyndall Effect. It can
be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest. The colour of the
scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles.
Blue Sky: The blue color of the sky is caused by the scattering of sunlight off the molecules
of the atmosphere. This scattering, called Rayleigh scattering, is more effective at short
wavelengths (the blue end of the visible spectrum). Therefore, the light scattered down to the
earth at a large angle with respect to the direction of the sun's light is predominantly in the
blue end of the spectrum.

YOU TUBE LINKS: https://youtu.be/5yxgLGsSWJk

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SYLLABUS: TERM - II
1. CH- ELECTRICITY
2. CH- MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

CH- ELECTRICITY

GLOSSARY: SALIENT FEATURES:

Two kinds of electrical charges
 Positive charge
 Negative charge
Atoms are electrically neutral
 Electrons are negatively charged
 Protons are positively charged
 Atoms are electrically neutral
 Charge on 1 electron = Charge on 1 proton = 1.6 X 10-19C
Quantization of Charges:
Q=ne
Where n is an integer n=1,2,3,4----

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Electric Circuits:
• An electric circuit is a complete path through which electricity travels
• Circuits are made up of wires and electrical parts such as batteries, light bulbs, resistors,
motors and switches
• A circuit diagram is a shorthand method of describing a working circuit. A circuit diagram
uses symbols to show the parts that a circuit is made up of.

COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT:

:
Electric Potential: The amount of electric potential energy at a point is called electric
potential.
Potential Difference: The difference in the amount of electric potential energy between two
points in an electric circuit is called electric potential difference.
Electric potential difference is known as voltage, which is equal to the amount of work done
to move the unit charge between two points against static electric field.

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S.I. unit of electric potential difference is volt and denoted by ‘V’

Electric current is expressed by the rate of flow of electric charges. Rate of flow means, the
amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.

S.I. unit of electric current is ampere (A). Ampere is the flow of electric charge through a
surface at the rate of one coulomb per second

Ohm’s law
The current flowing through an ohmic conductor is directly proportional to the applied
potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.

Voltmeter: An apparatus to measure the potential difference or electric potential difference

between two points in an electric circuit.

Ammeter: An apparatus to measure electric current in a circuit.,

Galvanometer: It is a device to detect current in an electric circuit.

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Resistance
Resistance is a measure of the opposition offered to the current flow in an electric circuit.

Factors affecting Resistance & How they affect

Resistance is:

 directly proportional to the length of the conductor.

 directly proportional to nature of the conductor.
 directly proportional to the temperature of the conductor.
 inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

Resistivity
The electrical resistance offered by a substance of unit length and unit cross-sectional area is
called resistivity.
Resistivity is also known as specific resistance.
Resistivity depends on the nature of the material of the conductor
The resistivity of materials varies with temperature.

Combination of Resistors

Combination of resistors

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  Two resistors are said to be combined in series if they carry the same current.
 Two resistors are said to be combined in parallel if the same potential difference is
applied to them.
Resistors in Series: When resistors are joined from end to end, it is called in series

Let, three resistors R1, R2, and R3 get connected in series.

Potential difference across A and B = V
Potential difference across R1, R2 and R3 = V1, V2 and V3
Current flowing through the combination = I
We, know that
V= V1 + V2 + V3 …. (i)
According to Ohm’s Law :
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3 ….. (ii)
Let, total resistance = Rs
Then, V = IRs …(iii)
From equations (i) and (ii) and (iii)
IRs = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
R s = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in Parallel: When resistors are joined in parallel, the reciprocal of the total
resistance of the system is equal to the sum of reciprocal of the resistance of resistors.

Let three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel.

Potential difference across point A and B = V
Total current flowing between point A and B = I
Currents flowing through resistors R1, R2 and R3 = I1, I2 and I3 respectively.
We, know that,
I = I1 + I2 + I3 …….(i)
Since, the potential difference across R1, R2, and R3 is the same = V

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According to Ohm’s Law,

Heating Effect of Electric Current: When electric current is supplied to a purely resistive
conductor, the energy of electric current is dissipated entirely in the form of heat and as a
result, resistor gets heated.
Joule’s Law Of Heating: Let, an electric current, I is flowing through a resistor having
resistance = R.
The potential difference through the resistor is = V.
The charge, Q flows through the circuit for the time, t
Thus, work done in moving of charge (Q) of potential difference (V),
W=V×Q
Since this charge, Q flows through the circuit for time t
Therefore, power input (P) to the circuit can be given by the following equation :
P = WT
P = V × Qt ….(i)
We know, electric current, I = Qt
Substituting Qt = I in equation (i), we get,
P = VI …(ii)
i.e., P = VI
Since, the electric energy is supplied for time ?, thus, after multiplying both sides of equation
(ii) by time t, we get,
P × t = VI × t = VIt ……(iii)
i.e., P = VIt
Thus, for steady current I, the heat produced (H) in time t is equal to VIt
H = VIt i.e., H = VIt
We know, according to Ohm’s Law,
V = IR
By substituting this value of V in equation (iii), we get,
H = IR × It
H = I2Rt ……(iv)
The expression (iv) is known as Joule’s Law of Heating, which states that heat produced in a
resistor is directly proportional to the square of current given to the resistor, directly
proportional to the resistance for a given current and directly proportional to the time for
which the current is flowing through the resistor.

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Electric Power
S.I. unit of electric power is watt (W).
1W = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1V × 1A
I kilowatt or 1kW = 1000 W
Consumption of electricity (electric energy) is generally measured in kilowatt.
Unit of electric energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1 kWh = 1000 watt × 1 hour = 1 unit = 1000 W × 3600 s
1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 watt second = 3.6 × 106 J

CH- MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Magnetic field
The region around a magnet where its magnetic influence can be experienced is called a
magnetic field. The direction and strength of a magnetic field are represented by magnetic
lines of force.

Magnetic field lines

The magnetic field is represented by magnetic field lines.

 Magnet’s magnetic field lines result in the formation of continuous/running closed

loops.
 The tangent to the field line at any given point indicates the direction of the total
magnetic field at that point.
 The greater the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the higher the intensity,
the stronger the magnitude of the magnetic field.
 There is no intersection between the magnetic field lines.
 The magnetic field is measured in Tesla or Weber/m2 units.

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Direction of field line: Outside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from
North pole to South Pole. Inside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from
South pole to North pole.

Magnetic Field Due to a Current Carrying Conductor

When electric current flows through a current carrying conductor, it produces a magnetic
field around it

Rules for Determining Direction of Magnetic Field:

 The direction of the curled fingers points in the direction of the magnetic field if a
straight conductor is clutched in the palm of the right hand with the thumb
pointing along the path of current flow.
 For circular conductors, use the right hand thumb rule.
 The thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field if the circular current's
direction matches with the curled fingers' direction.

Magnetic field lines due to current a current carrying straight conductor

 The magnitude of magnetic field increases with increase in electric current and
decreases with decrease in electric current.
 The magnitude of magnetic field produced by electric current decreases with
increase in distance and vice – versa. The size of concentric circles of magnetic

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 field lines increases with distance from the conductor, which shows that
magnetic field decreases with distance

Magnetic field lines due to a current through a circular loop

The magnetic field produced due to solenoid

Factors affecting magnetic field due to current a current carrying Solenoid

 Increasing the amount of current.

 Increasing the number of turns of copper wire.
Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field:
Force on a straight current carrying conductor is mutually perpendicular to the magnetic field
and the direction of the current.

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Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule:
When the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the left hand are held perpendicular to each
other, with the forefinger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger
pointing in the direction of the current, the thumb points in the direction of the force exerted
on the conductor, according to Fleming's left-hand rule.

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