Chapter 6

Bandwidth Utilization:
Multiplexing and
Spreading
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 Bandwidth Utilization

Note

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of

available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing;

privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved
by spreading.

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6.1 MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the
set of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link. As data and telecommunications use
increases, so does traffic.
Topics discussed in this section:
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
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 Multiplexing

 Dividing a link into channels

 Word link refers to the physical path

 Channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission
between a given pair of lines.
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 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing
is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

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 FDM
 Multiplexer
transmission streams combine into a single stream(many to
one)

 Demultiplexer
stream separates into its component transmission(one to
many) and directs them to their intended receiving devices

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 FDM
 FDM (Frequency-Division)

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.
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 FDM (cont’d)
 FDM process
each telephone generates a signal of a similar frequency range
these signals are modulated onto different carrier
frequencies(f1, f2, f3)

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 FDM(cont’d)
 FDM multiplexing process, frequency-domain

00 4 20 24
0

0 4 24 28
20 32

0 4 28 32

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 FDM (cont’d)
 FDM multiplexing process, time-domain

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 FDM(cont’d)
 Demultiplexing
separates the individual signals from their carries and passes them to
the waiting receivers.

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 FDM(cont’d)
 FDM demultiplexing, frequency-domain

20

20 24 0 4
24

24 28 0 4
20 32
28

28 32 0 4

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 FDM(cont’d)
 FDM demultiplexing process, time-domain

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 Example 6.1

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz.

We need to combine three voice channels into a link with a
bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6. We use the 20-
to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-kHz
bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz
bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine them as
shown in Figure 6.6.
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 FDM(cont’d)
Figure 6.6 Example 6.1

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 Example 6.2

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be

multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?

Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This
means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure 6.7.

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 FDM(cont’d)

Figure 6.7 Example 6.2

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 Example 6.3

Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1

Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an
appropriate configuration, using FDM.

Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having a 250-kHz bandwidth. Each
digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated such that each 4 bits
is modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16-QAM modulation.
Figure 6.8 shows one possible configuration.
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 FDM(cont’d)

Figure 6.8 Example 6.3

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 FDM(cont’d)
 Example : Cable Television
coaxial cable has a bandwidth of approximately 500Mhz
individual television channel requires about 6Mhz of bandwidth
for transmission
can carry 83 channels theoretically

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 Analog Hierarchy

To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone companies have traditionally

multiplexed signals from lower bandwidth lines onto higher bandwidth lines.
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 Example 6.4

The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two

bands. The first band of 824 to 849 MHz is used for
sending, and 869 to 894 MHz is used for receiving. Each
user has a bandwidth of 30 kHz in each direction. How
many people can use their cellular phones simultaneously?

Solution
Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz by 30 kHz, we
get 833.33. In reality, the band is divided into 832 channels.
Of these, 42 channels are used for control, which means only
790 channels are available for cellular phone users.
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 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 WDM is conceptually same as FDM
except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve light
signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels

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 WDM (cont’d)

WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.

λ1 λ1

λ2 λ2
λ1 + λ2 + λ3
λ3 λ3

Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make
a wider band of light

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 WDM (cont’d)
 Combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a
prism
Prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the
frequency.
One application is the SONET.

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 TDM

TDM(Time-Division Multiplexing)
is a digital process that can be applied when the
data rate capacity of the transmission medium is
greater than the data rate required by the sending
and receiving device

DM is a digital multiplexing technique

for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.

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 TDM(cont’d)
Time-Division Multiplexing
 is a digital process that allows several connections to share
the high bandwidth of a link, time is shared.
Two different schemes : Synchronous TDM & Statistical TDM

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 TDM(cont’d)

Figure 6.13 Synchronous time-division multiplexing

UNIT UNIT
Time slot(T/3 sec)

In Synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times

faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.
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 Example 6.5

In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each input connection is 1

kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is
the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output slot, and
(c) each frame?

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This
means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The
duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit
duration).
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 Example 6.5 (continued)

b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the

input time slot. This means that the duration of the
output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the

duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms. The duration
of a frame is the same as the duration of an input unit.

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 Example 6.6
Figure 6.14 shows synchronous TDM with a data stream for
each input and one data stream for the output. The unit of
data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b) the output
bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the output frame
rate.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.

b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit

duration, or ¼ μs.
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 Example 6.6 (continued)

c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit

duration or 1/(1/4μs) or 4 Mbps. This can also be deduced
from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as fast as any
input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps = 4 Mbps.

d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So

the frame rate is 1,000,000 frames per second. Because we
are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can verify the result
of the previous question by multiplying the frame rate by
the number of bits per frame.

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 TDM(cont’d)

Figure 6.14 Synchronous TDM Example 6.6

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 Example 6.7

Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit is

1 bit. Find (a) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing, (b)
the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of a time
slot, and (d) the duration of a frame.

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1 / 1 kbps, or
0.001 s (1 ms).

b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection, or 4

kbps.
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 Example 6.7 (continued)

c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the

duration of each bit before multiplexing, or 1/4 ms or 250
μs. Note that we can also calculate this from the data rate
of the link, 4 kbps. The bit duration is the inverse of the
data rate, or 1/4 kbps or 250 μs.

d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the

duration of a unit before multiplexing, or 1 ms. We can
also calculate this in another way. Each frame in this case
has four time slots. So the duration of a frame is 4 times
250 μs, or 1 ms.
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 Synchronous TDM (cont’d)
Interleaving
Synchronous TDM can be compared to a very fast
rotating switch
Switches are synchronized and rotate at the same
speed, but in opposite directions.
On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in
front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path.
This process is called INTERLEAVING.
On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in
front of a connection, that has the opportunity to
receive a unit from the path.
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 Synchronous TDM (cont’d)

□ Empty Slots
If a source does not have data to send, the corresponding slot
in the output frame is empty.

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 Synchronous TDM (cont’d)

Example 6.8
Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each
channel sends 100 bytes/s and we multiplex 1 byte per
channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of
the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and the
bit rate for the link.
Solution
Frame size : 1byteX4line=

Frame rate :
Bit rate of the link =100FramesX32bit=
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 Synchronous TDM (cont’d)

Example 6.9
A multiplexer combines four 100-Kbps channels using a
time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary
inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame
duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?

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 Synchronous TDM (cont’d)

Solution
Figure 6.17 shows the output for four arbitrary inputs.
20 usec

1) Frame rate : 100Kbps, 2bits/channel, 100,000b/2=50,000 frame/sec

2) Frame duration : 1/50,000sec = 2X10-5sec = 20 usec
3) Bit rate : bits/frame, 50,000 frames x 8 bits = 400 kbps
4) Bit duration : 1/400,000sec = 2.5μsec
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 Synchronous TDM - Data rate Management
 How to handle a disparity in the data rates with TDM.
If data rates are not the same, 3 strategies can be used.
 Multi-level multiplexing
 Multiple-Slot Allocation
 Pulse Stuffing

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 Synchronous TDM - Multilevel multiplexing
 Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input
line is a multiple of others.
For example, the first two 20khz input lines can be multiplexed together to
provide a data rate equal to the last three.
A second level of multiplexing can create an output of 160 kbps.

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 Synchronous TDM - Multiple-Slot Allocation
 Sometime it is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame
to a single input line.
For example, the input line with a 50-kbps data rate can be given two
slots in the output.
We insert a serial-to-parallel converter in the line to make two inputs
out of one.

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 Synchronous TDM - Pulse Stuffing
 Sometime the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of each other.

 Pulse stuffing is to make the highest input data rate the dominant data
rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower rates.

 This technique is called Pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit stuffing.

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 Synchronous TDM (cont’d)
 Framing Synchronizing
If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit belong to one
channel may be received by the wrong channel.
Framing bits allow the demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream so
that it can separate the time slots accurately.
In most cases, this synchronization bits are added to the beginning of each frame,
and synchronization information consists of 1 bit per frame, alternating between 0
and 1.(ex: 10101010 ….)

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 Synchronous TDM (cont’d)
 Example6.10
1) Date rate of each source : 250 x 8 = 2000bps = 2kbps
2) Duration of a character: 1/250 sec or 4 ms
3) Frame rate: 250frames/sec
4) Duration of each frame: 1/250s or 4 ms
5) No. of bits per frame: 4 charaters + 1 extra sync bit = 33 bits
6) Date rate of link: 250 x 33 bits, or 8250

4 characters + 1 framing bit

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 Example 6.11

Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and

another with a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to be
multiplexed. How this can be achieved? What is the
frame rate? What is the frame duration? What is the
bit rate of the link?
Solution
We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two
slots to the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits.
The frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because
it carries 1 bit from the first channel. Frame duration
is 1/100,000s or 10μs. The bit rate is 100,000 frames/s
× 3 bits per frame, or 300 kbps.
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 Digital Signal Service
 DS(Digital Signal) Service
- Digital Hierarchy

advantage
- less sensitive than analog service to noise
- lower cost
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 Multiplexing application(cont’d)
 DS Service

DS-0 : single digital channel of 64Kbps

DS-1 : 1,544Mbps, 24 x 64Kbps + 8Kbps (overhead)

DS-2 : 6,312Mbps, 96 x 64Kbps+168Kbps (overhead)

DS-3 : 44,376Mbps, 672 x 64Kbps+1.368Mbps (overhead)

DS-4 : 274,176Mbps, 4032 x 64Kbps+16.128Mbps (overhead)

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 Multiplexing application(cont’d)

Table 6.1 DS and T line rates

376

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 Multiplexing application(cont’d)

• T Lines for Analog Transmission

Figure 6.24 T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines

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 T-1 Frame structure

193 = 24 x 8 + 1(1 bit for synchronization)

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 E Line

Table 6.2 E line rates

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 Statistical TDM

 In statistical TDM, slots are dynamically allocated

to improve bandwidth efficiency.

 In a synchronous TDM, some slots are empty

because the corresponding line does not have data

to send.

 In statistical TDM, no slot is left empty as long as

there are data to be sent by any input line.

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 Statistical TDM

Figure 6.26 TDM slot comparison

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 Statistical TDM

 Addressing

A slot needs to carry data as well as the address

of the destination.

n-bits define N different output lines

 n = log2 N

No synchronization bit

 The frame in the statistical TDM need not be

synchronized, so we do not need synchronization
bits.
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6.2 SPREAD SPECTRUM

In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from different

sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our goals are to
prevent eavesdropping and jamming. To achieve these
goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy.

Topics discussed in this section:

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Synchronous (DSSS)

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 Spread Spectrum
Figure 6.27 Spread spectrum
Spread Spectrum achieves through two principles.

The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be larger

than what is needed.

The spreading process occurs after the signal is created

by the source.

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 Spread Spectrum
Figure 6.28 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
FHSS uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by the
source signal.
At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier frequency;

At the next moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency.

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 Spread Spectrum

Figure 6.29 Frequency selection in FHSS

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 Spread Spectrum

Figure 6.30 FHSS cycles

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 Spread Spectrum

Figure 6.31 Bandwidth sharing

If the number of hopping frequencies is M, we can multiplex

M channels into one by using the same Bss bandwidth.

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 Spread Spectrum
Figure 6.32 DSSS

In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading code.

Each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the chip rate is n
times that of the data bit.

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 Spread Spectrum

Figure 6.33 DSSS example

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 Summary (1)
 Bandwidth utilization is the use of available bandwidth to achieve specific goals.
Efficiency can be achieved by using multiplexing; privacy and antijamming can be
achieved by using spreading

 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission

of multiple signals across a single data link. In a multiplexed system, n lines share
the bandwidth of one link. The word link refers to the physical path. The word
channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission.

There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing,

wavelength-division multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two are
techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals

 Wavelength-division multiplexing(WDM) is designed to use the high bandwidth

capability of fiber-optic cable. WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to
combine optical signals.

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 Summary (2)
 Time-division multiplexing(TDM) is a digital process that allows several
connections to share the high bandwidth of a link. TDM is a digital multiplexing
technique for combining several low-rate channels into one high-rate one.

 We can divide TDM into two different schemes: synchronous or statistical. In

synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it
is not sending data. In statistical TDM, slots are dynamically allocated to improve
bandwidth efficiency.

In Spread spectrum(SS), we combine signals from different sources to fit into a
larger bandwidth. Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications
in which stations must be able to share the medium without interception by an
eavesdropper and without being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder.

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 Summary (3)
 The frequency hopping spread spectrum(FHSS) technique uses M different
carrier frequencies that are modulated by the source signal. At one moment, the
signal modulates one carrier frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates
another carrier frequency.

 The direct sequence spread spectrum(DSSS) technique expands the

bandwidth of a signal by replacing each data bit with n bits using a spreading
code. In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips.

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 Q&A

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