Lec 8 Fading

FADING
Small Scale Fading
Link Budget
Engr. Mian Shahzad Iqbal

Lecturer
Department of Telecommunication
Engineering
Definition
Refers to mathematical models for the distortion.

Rapid fluctuation of the Amplitudes, Phases, or
multipath delay of a radio signal.
Caused by interference between two or more versions
of transmitted signal.
Called Multipath waves, combine at the receiver
antenna to give resultant signal.
It may also be caused by attenuation of a single signal.
For Example: Stopping at traffic lights and hearing lot
of static noises on radio.
Small Scale Fading
Propagation models that characterize

the rapid fluctuations of the received
signal strength over very short travel
distances (a few wavelength) or short
time durations (on the order of
seconds) are called Small-Scale Fading.
Small Scale Multipath

Propagation
Three most important effects are:
Rapid changes in signal strength over a

small travel distance or time interval.
Random frequency modulation due to
varying Doppler shifts on different
multipath signal.
Time dispersion (echoes) caused by
multipath propagation delays.
Factors Influencing
Multipath propagation
Speed of Mobile
Relative motion between the base station and the mobile.

Doppler shift will be positive or negative.
Speed of surrounding objects.
Presence of reflecting objects.

Result in multiple version.
Fluctuations in signal strength.
Surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the mobile.
Transmission bandwidth of the signal
If transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the

bandwidth of the multipath channel.
Large Scale Propagation
Propagation models that predict the

mean signal strength for an arbitrary
transmitter-receiver separation
distances are useful in estimating the
radio coverage area of a transmitter
and are called Large-Scale propagation.
Fading
Fast Fading
(Short-term fading)
Slow Fading
(Long-term fading)
Signal
Strength
(dB)
Path Loss
Distance
Small Scale and Large Scale Fading
Doppler Shift
Doppler Effect: When a wave source and a receiver are

moving towards each other, the frequency of the received
signal will not be the same as the source.
When they are moving toward each other, the frequency of the
received signal is higher than the source.
When they are opposing each other, the frequency decreases.
Thus, the frequency of the received signal is

f R = fC f D
where fC is the frequency of source carrier,
fD is the Doppler frequency.
Doppler Shift in frequency:
MS
v
f D = cos
where v is the moving speed,

Signal
is the wavelength of carrier.
Moving
speed v
Doppler Shift
Numerical
Consider a transmitter which radiates a

sinusoidal carrier frequency of 1850 MHz. For
a vehicle moving 60 mph, compute the
received carrier frequency if the mobile is
moving (a) directly toward the transmitter,
(b) directly away from the transmitter, and
(c) in a direction which is perpendicular to the
direction of arrival of the transmitted signal.
Delay Spread
When a signal propagates from a transmitter to a

receiver, signal suffers one or more reflections.
This forces signal to follow different paths.
Each path has different path length, so the time of
arrival for each path is different.
This effect which spreads out the signal is called
Delay Spread.
Delay Spread
Signal Strength
The signals from

close by reflectors
The signals from

intermediate reflectors
The signals from
far away reflectors
Delay
Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
ISI means that consecutive symbols interfere with each other

and it gets difficult on the receiver side to decide which
actual symbol is detected (or actually, sent).
Caused by time delayed multipath signals
Has impact on burst error rate of channel
Second multipath is delayed and is received during next
symbol
1
R<
2d
For low bit-error-rate (BER)

R (digital transmission rate) limited by delay spread d.
Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

Transmission
signal
1
Time
0
Received signal
(short delay)
Time
Propagation time
Delayed signals
Received signal
(long delay)
Time
Time dispersion
The introduction of digital transmission brings another problem:

time dispersion.
This also has its origin in reflections, but in contrast to multipath
fading, the reflected signal comes from an object far away from
the Rx antenna, say in the order of kilometers.
The time dispersion causes Inter Symbol Interference (ISI).
Types of Small Scale Fading
Fading, experienced by signal propagation through Mobile radio

channel.
Depends on transmitted signal nature and characteristic of
channel.
Signal parameters:
Channel parameters:
Bandwidth
Symbol period
rms delay spread

Doppler spread
Types are:
Multipath delay spread (Time dispersion and Frequency selective

fading)
Doppler spread (Frequency dispersion and Time selective fading)
Two Independent Fading Issues
Flat Fading
T >> d and W << BC minimal

ISI
s(t)
r(t)
h(t,)
Delay spread
Time domain
(convolve)
0 Ts
Ts+
Coherence BW
Freq domain
(filter)
fc
fc
fc
Frequency Selective Fading
T << d and W >> BC ISI

s(t)
r(t)
h(t,)
Delay spread
Time domain
(convolve)
0 Ts
0 Ts Ts+
Coherence BW
Freq domain
(filter)
fc
fc
fc
Types of Fading on Doppler Spread
Fast Fading
Slow Fading
Fast Fading
Fast fading or multipath or small-scale fading
occurring with small movements of a mobile
Channel Impulse Response changes rapidly
with the symbol duration period.
Coherence Time of channel is less than
symbol period of the transmitted signal.
Causes Frequency dispersion and signal is
distorted.
Ts > Tc
And
Bs < BD
Slow Fading
Slow fading or shadowing or large-scale
fading caused by larger movements of mobile
or obstructions within the propagation
environment.
Channel impulse response changes at a rate
much slower than the transmitted signal.
Ts << Tc
And
Bs >> BD
Fading Examples
Rayleigh Fading
Rician Fading
Rayleigh Fading
Statistical model for the effect of

propagation on radio signal.
Ideal model for tropospheric and
ionospheric signal propagation.
As well as the effect of heavily built-up
urban environments on radio signal.
Rayleigh fading most applicable when
there is no line of sight.
Rician Fading
Causes of multipath include

atmospheric ducting, ionospheric
reflection and refraction, and reflection
from terrestrial objects, such as
mountains and buildings.
Effects of multipath include constructive
and destructive interference and phase
shifting of the signal.
Rayleigh fading with strong line of sight
content is said to have a Rician
distribution, or to be Rician fading.
Rician Fading (Contd.)
Digital radio communication multipath

can cause errors and effect the quality
of communication.
Errors due to intersymbol Interference.
Equalizers are often used to correct ISI.
Alternatively OFDM and Rake Receiver
may be used.
Fade Margin
Design Allowance that provides

sufficient system gain or sensitivity to
accommodate expected fading.
Purpose of ensuring that the required
quality of service is maintained.
Maintain specified threshold value.
Link Budget
A link budget is the accounting of all of the

gains and losses from the transmitter,
through the medium (free space, cable,
waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver in a
telecommunication system. It takes
transmitted signal attenuation, loss or gains
due to the antenna.
Simple link budget equation looks like this:
Received Power (dBm) = Transmitted Power (dBm) + Gains (dB) Losses (dB)
Link Budget (contd.)

For a line of sight radio system, a link budget
equation might look like this:
where:
PRX = power received (dBm)
PTX = transmitter output power (dBm)
GTX = transmitter antenna gain (dBi)
LTX = transmitter losses (coax, connectors...)
(dB)
LFS = free space loss or path loss (dB)
LM = miscellaneous losses (fading margin,
polarization mismatch, other losses...) (dB)
GRX = receiver antenna gain (dBi) LRX =
receiver losses (coax, connectors...) (dB)

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FADING

Small Scale Fading

Engr. Mian Shahzad Iqbal

Refers to mathematical models for the distortion.

Small Scale Fading

Propagation models that characterize

Small Scale Multipath

Three most important effects are:

Rapid changes in signal strength over a

Relative motion between the base station and the mobile.

Speed of surrounding objects.

Presence of reflecting objects.

Surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the mobile.

Transmission bandwidth of the signal

If transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the

Large Scale Propagation

Propagation models that predict the

Small Scale and Large Scale Fading

Doppler Effect: When a wave source and a receiver are

Thus, the frequency of the received signal is

where v is the moving speed,

Consider a transmitter which radiates a

When a signal propagates from a transmitter to a

The signals from

The signals from

Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

ISI means that consecutive symbols interfere with each other

For low bit-error-rate (BER)

Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

The introduction of digital transmission brings another problem:

Types of Small Scale Fading

Fading, experienced by signal propagation through Mobile radio

rms delay spread

Multipath delay spread (Time dispersion and Frequency selective

Two Independent Fading Issues

T >> d and W << BC minimal

Frequency Selective Fading

T << d and W >> BC ISI

Types of Fading on Doppler Spread

Statistical model for the effect of

Causes of multipath include

Rician Fading (Contd.)

Digital radio communication multipath

Design Allowance that provides

A link budget is the accounting of all of the

Link Budget (contd.)

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