Witty Approach To Practical Chemistry For Senior Secondary Schools

By WittyProfTunde Gbolahan
WITTY APPROACH TO
PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY
FOR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
PREPARED
BY
WittyProfTunde.
(A.K.A SON OF MAN)
1 WATCH WORD: KNOWLEDGE GOVERNS IGNORANCE.

UNIT ONE
REASONS FOR CANDIDATES’ POOR PERFORMANCES IN

ANSWERING PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY QUESTIONS
It has been observed that poor performance of candidates in Practical

Chemistry examination is due to the following weaknesses:
a. Inability to understand and interpret the demands of the question in terms

of the operative terms like:
name,explain,state,list,deduce,suggest,determine,predict,mention,etc
b. Inability to follow instructions strictly in carrying out tests. Examples of
candidates’ mistakes are: (i) performing tests on solid samples instead of
on residue and filtrate (ii) adding excess reagents when drops are required
(iii) using dry litmus papers instead of wet ones in testing for acidity or
alkalinity of gases (iv) adding inappropriate solutions into the burette or
pipetting a wrong solution into the conical flask
c. Careless recording, poor observation which lead to wrong deductions and
illogical conclusions. Examples of these are:
(i) use of wrong symbols or formula like
CO2 instead of CO2
Cu instead of Cu2+
H2SO4 instead of H2SO4
NH3 instead of NH3 (aq)
(ii) use of unacceptable abbreviations like
ff for following
rxn for reaction
Xs for excess
Note that it is acceptable to use ppt. for precipitate
(iii) incomplete/wrong description like
 deep blue substance instead of deep blue solution
 white solution instead of colourless solution
 precipitate melts instead of precipitate dissolves
 gas given off instead of colourless or brown, etc given off.
(iv) use of trivial names instead of IUPAC names

(v) poor expressions and wrong spellings
d. Poor arithmetic calculations, omission of units and use of wrong units.
e. Inability to relate the theory to practical as revealed in their responses to test

of practical works.
f. Poor knowledge of the mole concept, significant figures and other basic
concepts and chemical principles.
g. Inadequate exposure to practical works, for examples, lack of knowledge of

sources of errors in experimental procedures.
h. Inadequate coverage of the syllabus.
i. Failure to record observations as the time they were made.
UNIT TWO

VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
Volumetric analysis is a method used by chemists to determine quantity of

reacting substances that are in the form of solutions. It involves a technique called
titration.
Titration is an important method in volumetric analysis in which a solution of

known concentration (i.e. standard solution) is run from a burette into a fixed
volume of another solution whose concentration is unknown that has been pipetted
into a conical flask in the presence of an indicator until the two solutions have
completely reacted. This is shown by a colour change in the resulting solution. The
reacting volumes of the solutions are then used to calculate the unknown
concentration of the solution. In titration, at least one of the solutions involved
must be a standard solution.
CLASSIFICATION OF VOLUMETRIC METHODS
There are four general classes of volumetric methods namely:
1. Acid–Base titration
2. Oxidation–Reduction titration
3. Precipitation titration
4. Complexometric titration
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
In titration, there is a test substance called analyte which is usually

pipetted into the conical flask and the titrant which is usually contained in a
burette. In an acid-base titration, the analyte is the base while the titrant is
the acid. Titration must have the following requirements
1. The reaction should be stoichiometric. That is, it must be well defined
and known e.g. H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) +2H2O (l)
2. The reaction should be rapid
3. There should be no side reactions and the reaction should be specific.
4. There should be clear change in some property of the solution when the
reaction is complete e.g. change in colour at end point

5. There should be end point or equivalent point. The point at which the
reaction is observed to be complete is called the end point. End point
should coincide with the equivalent point.
6. The reaction should be quantitative.
EQUIVALENCE POINT AND END-POINT
The goal of every titration is the addition of standard solution in an amount

that is chemically equivalent (equal) to the substance with which it reacts. This
condition is achieved at the equivalence point which usually coincides with end-
point. End-point is the point where the reaction is observed to be complete and is
usually signalled by change in colour.
GENERAL TIPS FOR ACCURATE AND PRECISE

TITRATION
1. Ensure that all the material you need are within your reach.
2. Check that your burette is not leaking by first filling it with distilled
water.
3. Remove the water and rinse the burette at least 2 times with the solution
with which it is to be filled to remove bubbles of water from the barrel
which might introduce errors.
4. Fill the burette above the zero mark and open the stop cork to fill the tip
of the burette.
5. Check the tip for air bubbles. If any is present, work out of the tip by
tapping the tip while the solution is flowing.
6. No bubbles should be in the barrel of the burette.
7. Do not blow out the remaining drops out of the tip of the pipette.
8. Do not use more than two drops of the indicator provided unless
otherwise stated.
9. The initial reading may be 0.00cm3 or greater. The reading is best taking
by placing your finger or filter paper just in the back of the meniscus.
10. Avoid parallax errors by taking the readings at eye level.

11.The titration is carried out with the sample solution in the conical flask. The
flask is placed on a white background and the burette tip is positioned in the
neck of the flask.
12.The funnel must be removed from the burette before titration commences to
avoid error in volume of the solution due to subsequent drainage or dripping.
13.Do not rinse the conical flask with the solution to be used to avoid droplets
of solution adding to the measured volume thus increasing the volume.
14.Calculate the volume of the titrant used after the first titration. This gives an
ideal of the approximate volume of the titrant required in the subsequent
titrations
15.After a titration is complete, unused titrant (acid) should never be returned to
the original bottle but should be thrown away.
16.Ensure that the tip of the pipette is well below the surface of the base in the
beaker before sucking up to avoid sucking air bubbles into the pipette.
17.Ensure that the acid the acid is gently released from burette into the conical
flask to avoid leaving some drops of the solution on the sides of burette.
VOLUMETRIC APPARATUS
The common volumetric apparatuses are: volumetric flask, burettes,

pipettes, conical flask, retort stand, funnel, beakers, retort stand, measuring
cylinder, dropping bottle, white tile, wash bottle, pipette stand, volumetric
flask and indicators
USES OF THE APPARATUS
1. Volumetric flasks: These are used to prepare standard solutions to a
definite volume.
2. Pipettes: They are used to transfer a definite volume of a liquid
especially an alkali or a base in an acid-base titration.
3. Burettes: They are used to measure the volume of the acid solution in an
acid-base titration.
4. Conical flasks: They are used to estimate the volume of a solution
especially during titration.
5. Retort stand: This is generally used as support especially for holding
upright the burette during titration.

6. Funnels: They are used to fill the burette during titration, or when
transferring solid into volumetric flask.
7. Indicator: It is used signal end-point in titration experiments.
8. Beakers: They are used for pouring solution and estimate roughly the
volume of a solution.
9. Retort stand: It is used to hold the burette in an upright position.
10.Wash bottle: It is used in keeping distilled water; for filling volumetric
flask.
11.Pipette stand: It is used for keeping pipette.
12.White tile: It is used for ensuring white background during titration to
obtain clear or sharp end-point.
13.Volumetric flask: It is used in preparing standard solution and in
dilution of solution.
14.Measuring cylinder: It is used to measure volumes of solution.
HANDLING OF DATA
The following should be noted while presenting your report.

1. Read burette to 0.05cm3
2. The initial and final burette readings must be to 2 decimal places which
must be consistent.
3. Titre values used for averaging should not differ by more than ±0.20cm3
4. The titration should be repeated to get consistent results
5. The report must be presented in a tabular form and the units must be
correctly stated.
6. The size of the pipette and the name of the indicator used must be stated.
7. Arithmetic errors should be avoided.
8. The rough reading should not be used for averaging.
9. Ensure that all calculations are correct to 3 significant figures.
An example of is given below
EXAMPLE OF TITRATION REPORT
Volume of pipette used = 25.00cm3

Indicator used = Methyl Orange

Burette Rough I II III
readings
Final 25.30 25.20 23.70 45.10
3
reading/cm
Initial burette 0.00 0.00 1.20 22.50
3
reading/cm
Volume of 25.30 25.20 22.50 22.60
3
acid used/cm
22.50+22.60
Average volume of the acid used = 2
45.10
= 2
= 22.55cm3
TITRATION CURVES
The purpose of any acid-base titration is the determination of the equivalence

point which is the point where equivalent quantities of acid and base have reacted.
This is done by means of an indicator, pH of meter or by conductivity. Therefore,
it is important to see how the pH of the reacting mixture varies with volume of the
titrant during the course of the titration. The graphs produced are called titration
curves. The shape of the curve produced when pH of the reacting mixture is plotted
against the volume of titrant is determined by the strength of acid and base used.
Thus, there four different curves for titrations of a:
(i) strong acid with strong base, e.g. HCl with NaOH (ii) strong acid with weak
base,e.g. HCl with NH4OH (iii) weak acid with strong base, e.g.CH3COOH with
NaOH (iv) weak acid with a weak base,e.g.CH3COOH with NH4OH
ACID-BASE TITRATION
An acid base titration is a neutralization reaction in which an acid reacts with an

equivalent amount of a base. The acid is usually put in the burette while a fixed
volume of the base is pipetted into the conical flask. The true point of

neutralization in acid base titration occurs when the amount of the acid and base
added are chemically equal to each other.
To understand the principle of titration, a good knowledge of the following is

required: (i) balancing of equations (ii) mole concept and (ii) molar concentration
terms
Titration is the process whereby a solution is put in a burette and the initial
reading taken, a definite volume of another solution (base) is put in conical flask
with the aid of pipette and a small quantity of an indicator added to it, the solution
(acid) in the burette is then gradually added into the solution in the conical flask
with the conical flask solution shaking in manner to ensure uniform mixing of the
two solution until the reaction is complete as signalled by a sudden colour change
in the colour of the indicator. This is the end point or equivalent point or the
neutralization point. Then, the final burette reading is taken.
DETECTION OF END POINT
End point is determined by the use of a compound called indicator. An

indicator for acid base titration is a weak organic acid or base that changes colour
depending on H+ ions of the solution. They are used to signal end point in an acid
base titration. Examples of indicators
Name of Colour in acidic Colour neutral Colour in alkaline

indicators medium medium medium
Litmus Red Purple Blue
Methyl Orange Pink Orange Yellow
Phenolpthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
CHOICE OF INDICATOR IN ACID BASE TITRATION
ACID BASE EXAMPLES INDICATOR

TITRATION
Srong Acid Versus Strong HCl versus NaOH Any indicator
Base
Strong Acid Versus Weak HCl versus NH4OH Methyl Orange
Base

Weak Acid Versus Strong CH3COOH Versus NaOH Phenolpthalein

Base
Weak Acid Versus Weak CH3COOH Versus No suitable indicator
Base NH4OH
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
(i) Unit of mass (m): The basic unit of mass is kilogram (kg), but its lower
unit gramme (g) is commonly used. 1kg = 103g 1g = 10-3kg
(ii) Unit of volume (v): Its basic unit is m3, but its lower unit (dm3 and cm3)
are commonly used.1dm3 =103cm3
(iii) Unit of amount (n): Its basic unit is the mole. The mole is amount of a
substance (element, molecule or compound) that contains as many
elementary units as there are in atoms in 12g of the carbon 12 isotope.
These elementary units may be atoms, molecule or ions. The number of
such elementary unit in a mole of a substance is 6.02 × 1023 known as
Avogadro’s number (NA).
DEFINITION OF TERMS
(1) MASS-MOLE RELATIONSHIP
The number mole present in a given mass is found as follows:

Suppose the number of moles present in m g is n moles
i.e n mole = m (in g)--------------(1)
Then, 1 mole of the substance has a mass equal to its molar mass
i.e 1 mole = M (in g)-------------- (2)
Dividing equation 1 by 2, we have

n m
=
1 M
m
n= M ----------------***
Number of moles = given mass/molar mass

Similarly, the number of particles present in a given number of moles can be

found as follows:
Suppose the number of particle present in n moles is N
i.e n moles = N particles -------------3
Then, 1 mole contains NA-----------------4

n N
=
1 NA
N = n NA-----------------***
Hence,
Number of particle = number of moles × Avogadro’s number
(2) CONCENTRATION TERMS
There are many ways in which concentration of a solution can be expressed.

Only three will be considered here. They are:
(i) Mass conc.: It is the mass of a substance dissolved in 1dm3 of solution. It

is expressed in g/dm3
Mathematically,
m
Mass conc. = V (dm3) --------------***
(ii) Molar conc.: It is the amount (number of mole) of substance present in

1dm .It is expressed in mol/dm3
3
Mathematically,
Molar conc. = Mass conc. /Molar mass

ρ
i.e Molar conc. = M ----------***
Where,
ρ = mass conc. of a solution

M = Molar Mass
(iii) Percentage conc.
It is expressed in two ways namely: (i) % conc. by mass: It is the mass of

the solute in gramme present in 100g of the solution and (ii) % conc. by volume:
It is the volume of a liquid in 100cm3 of solution.
3. RELATIONSHIP AMONG CONCENTRATION, AMOUNT AND

VOLUME
(i) C ∝ n at constant volume (V)

1
(ii) C ∝ V at constant amount (n)
(iii) n ∝ V at constant concentration (C)
4. DILUTION PROBLEM’S PRINCIPLE
It is used to dilute a highly concentrated solution to less one. It is based
on the principle that the amount of solute in a given volume of solution does
not change by increasing the volume of the solution.
1
Hence, C ∝ V at constant n is used. Thus,
C1V1 = C2V2-----------------***
Where, C1=molar conc. of concentrated solution

V1=volume of concentrated solution
C2=molar conc. of dilute solution
V2=volume of dilute solution
Consider a hypothetical general equation of acid and base:

aA + bB → products , where A represents an acid solution and B the

base solution. Then, it follows that:
CAVA =nA------------- (1)

Also,
CBVB =nB------------- (2)
CAVA = nA
CBVB nB
5. STANDARD SOLUTION
It is a solution whose concentration is known. That is, it is a solution which

contains an accurately known mass of a particular solute dissolved in a known
volume of solution.
(a) PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTION OF AN ACID
To prepare a standard solution of an acid, the following data is necessary:
*specific gravity of the acid
*percentage purity of the acid
*molar mass of the acid
*concentration of the dilute acid solution
*volume of the diluted acid solution that is required.
The table below gives the percentage purity and relative densities (or specific
gravity) of some common acids
Acid Molar Mass in Percentage Purity Specific Gravity

g/mol w/w
HCl 36.5 32% - 36% 1.18
H2SO4 98 96% - 98% 1.84
HNO3 63 65% - 72% 1.047 – 1.052
Example 1
Calculate the volume of concentrated H2SO4 (S.G 1.84, 98% pure) required to
prepare 1.0dm3 of approximately 0.05 mol/dm3
ANSWER
Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98g/mol
1cm3 of solution contains 1.84g H2SO4
1dm3 (1000cm3) of solution contain 1.84 × 1000cm3 H2SO4
= 1840g H2SO4
Mass of pure H2SO4 = (98 × 1840/100) g in 1dm3 of solution
Mass conc. of H2SO4 = 1803.2 g/dm3
Then, molar conc. of pure H2SO4 = mass conc. /molar mass
= 1803.2/98
= 18.4 mol/dm3
Using the formula for dilution, C1V1 = C2V2
18.4 × V1 = 0.05 × 1000
V1 = (0.05 × 1000/18.4)
V1 = 2.72cm3
Therefore, 2.72cm3 of concentrated acid H2SO4 would be diluted to 1.0dm3 in

order to produce a 0.05 mol/dm3 solution of H2SO4
(b) PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTION OF A BASE
To prepare a standard solution of a base involves three stages:
*calculation of the mass of the solute to be weighed;
*weighing of the solute;
*preparation of the solution

Example 1
Preparation of 0.05 mol/dm3 solution of Na2CO3
Procedures involved are:
(i) Calculation of the mass of Na2CO3 to be weighed

Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106g/mol
Mass of Na2CO3, m = Conc. (mol/dm3) × Vol. (dm3) × M (g/mol)
m = 0.05 × 1 × 106 = 5.30g
5.30g of Na2CO3 would be weighed dissolved in 1dm3 of solution to produce 0.05

mol/dm3 solution.
(ii) Weighing of the solute
A clean dry beaker should be used. Record your results as follows:
Mass of empty beaker = 20 g (hypothetical value)
Mass of beaker + solute = (20 + 5.30) g (hypothetical value)
= 25.30 g (hypothetical value)
Then, add the solute into the empty beaker until the balance reads 25.30g
(hypothetical value).Up next is the preparation of the solution.
(iii) Preparing the solution
Carefully dissolve the solute in a beaker with a small amount of warm distilled
water. Then, pour the solution down the side of the glass rod into a clean 1dm3
volumetric flask using a glass funnel. Rinse the beaker and the glass rod into the
volumetric flask. Then, add more distilled water into the flask to make up to the
mark.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
* Calculate the volume of HCl (S.G 1.18, 36% pure) that would be required to
prepare 4.0dm3 of 0.05 mol/dm3 solution.

UNIT THREE
BACKGROUND
This unit deals with the different calculations a candidate can encounter in
acid–base titration experiment. They are treated below.
1. CALCULATION OF THE CONCENTRATION OF AN ACID OR

BASE(ALKALINE) SOLUTION
Background
This is standardization of a solution of an acid by the use of a standard

solution of a base and vice versa through the process called titration.
Example
A is solution of HNO3.B is a solution of NaOH containing 4.0g per dm3 of

solution.
25cm3 portions of B required an average of 24.00cm3 of solution A for complete

neutralization. Calculate the:
(i) conc. of solution B in mol/dm3 ;

(ii) conc. of solution A in mol/dm3 and
(iii) conc. of solution A in g/dm3
The equation for reaction is:
HNO3 (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
(H=1, N=14, 0=16, Na=23)
Answer
(i) Molar conc. of NaOH = mass conc./molar mass

= ρ/M
= 4.00/40.0
= 0.100 mol/dm3
Therefore, the molar conc. of B = 0.100 mol/dm3
(ii) Using CAVA = nA

CBVB nB
Make CA the subject of the formula
CA = (0.100 × 25.00 × 1)/ (24.00 × 1) = 0.104 mol/dm3
Therefore, the molar conc. of HNO3 = 0.104 mol/dm3
(iii) Molar mass of HNO3 = 1 + 14 + 3(16) = 63g/mol
Mass conc. of HNO3 = Molar con. × Molar mass
= 0.104 × 63 = 6.55g/dm3
2. CALCULATION OF % PURITY AND IMPURITY OF AN ACIDIC
OR (BASE) ALKALINE SOLUTION
Background
Sometimes, one of the components involved in the acid-base titration may be

impure. In such case, candidates may be required to determine the % purity or %
impurity of the impure sample using volumetric method. Candidate must note the
following:
1. The conc. of impure sample is usually given;

2. Only the pure component of the impure sample will react. The impurities
will not react;
3. % purity = mass conc. of pure component × 100
mass conc. of impure sample 1
4. % impurity = mass conc. of impurity × 100
mass conc. of impure sample 1
5. % purity + % impurity = 100%
Example
4.0g of an impure sample of NaOH was dissolved in distilled water and the
solution was made up to 250cm3.If 25cm3 of the solution on titration
completely neutralized 20.40cm3 0f HCl containing 0.200 mol/dm3.Calculate
the : (i) % purity of the sample NaOH (ii) % impurity of the sample NaOH.
The equation of the reaction is: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
(H=1; Na=23; Cl=35.5; 0=16)
Answer
(i) Molar mass of NaOH= 23 + 16 + 1 = 40g/mol
250cm3 of impure NaOH contain 4.0g of NaOH
1000cm3 will contain (4.00 × 1000)/250
Mass conc. of impure NaOH = 16.0g/dm3
Using the formular CAVA = nA
CBVB nB
CA=0.200mol/dm3,CB=?,VA=20.40cm3,VB=25.00cm3
Make CB the subject of the formular
CB = (0.200 × 20.40)/ (2 × 25.00)
CB = 0.08 mol/dm3
Conc. CB of pure NaOH = 0.08 mol/dm3
Therefore, the mass conc. of pure CB = 0.08 × 106= 8.48g/dm3
% purity of the NaOH sample = (8.48/16) × 100/1
= 53 %
(ii) Mass conc. of impurity = (16.0 – 8.48) = 7.52g/dm3

% impurity of NaOH sample = (7.52/16) × 100/1
= 47%
3. CALCULATION OF THE pH OR pOH OF AN ACIDIC OR

ALKALINE SOLUTIONS
Background
The H+ ions conc. of a solution is a measure of its acidity. In all aqueous

solutions, conc. of H+ ions is always inversely proportional to the OH- ions conc.
Mathematically,
[H+]α 1/ [OH-]
Kw = [H+][OH-]
At 25oC, Kw = 10-14 mol2/dm6

[H+][OH-]= 10-14--------------- (i)
But, it is more convenient to express the acidity of a solution in terms of its H+

index value or pH value.
Definition: The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the H+

conc. (in mol/dm3)
Mathematically,
pH=-log10 [H+] ----------------(ii)
Taking -log10 of both sides of equation (i), we have
-Log10([H+][OH-]) = -Log1010-14
-Log10([H+] + -Log10[OH-]=-Log1010-14
pH + pOH = 14-----------------------------(iii)
At neutrality, pH=7.Therefore, the pH that is less than 7 is acidic while pH

greater than 7 is alkaline.
Example
A is a solution of H2SO4. B is a NaOH containing 2.00g of the solute per dm3.
(a) Put A into the burette and titrate with 20cm3 or 25cm3 portions of B using
methyl orange as indicator. Record the volume of your pipette. Tabulate
your readings and calculate the average volume of A used.
(b) From your results and the information provided, calculate the:
(i) conc. of B in mol/dm3;
(ii) pH of solution A;
The equation for the reaction is:
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

(Na=23, O=16, H=1)
Answer
Take the average volume of A used as 23.50cm3
(a) VA=23.50cm3
(b) (i) Molar mass (M) of NaOH= 40g/mol
Molar conc. of B =mass conc. of B/Molar Mass
= ρ/M
=2.0/40
Therefore, the molar conc. of B=0.05mol/dm3
(ii)Using the formular
CAVA = nA
CBVB nB
Make CA the subject of formular
CA= (0.05 × 25)/ (2×23.50)
CA= 0.0266mol/dm3
Therefore, the molar conc. of A=0.0266mol/dm3
The dissociation of H2SO4 (aq) is complete as it is a strong one.
H2SO4 (aq) ⇋ 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Mole ratio 1 : 2 : 1
0.0266 : 2(0.0266): 0.0266
Conc. of H+ ions =2(0.0266) =0.0532 mol/dm3
i.e [H+] =0.0532 mol/dm3
pH=-log10[H+]
pH=-log10(0.0532)
pH=1.2741=1.27
Therefore, the pH of solution A=1.27 (solution A is highly acidic)
4. CALCULATION OF THE AMOUNT OF IONS AND (ACTUAL)

NUMBER OF IONS IN A SOLUTION
Background
One mole of a substance contains Avogadro’s number of particles (NA). The

particles may either be atoms, molecules or ions. This number is a constant and has
a value of 6.02 × 1023
Example
A is a solution of H2SO4. B is a NaOH containing 2.00g of the solute per dm3.
your readings and calculate the average volume of A used.
(i) conc. of B in mol/dm3;
(ii) amount of SO42- ions in 250cm3 of solution A;
(iii) number of SO42- ions in 250cm3 of solution A;
(iv) amount of SO42- ions that reacted
The equation for the reaction is:
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

(Na=23; O=16; H=1; NA=6.02 × 1023)
Answer
Take the average volume of A used as 23.50cm3
(a) VA=23.50cm3
(b) (i) Molar mass (M) of NaOH= 40g/mol
Molar conc. of B =mass conc. of B/Molar Mass
= ρ/M
=2.0/40
Therefore, the molar conc. of B=0.05mol/dm3
(ii)Using the formular
CAVA = nA
CBVB nB
Make CA the subject of formular
CA= (0.05 × 25)/ (2×23.50)
CA= 0.0266mol/dm3
The dissociation (ionization) of H2SO4 (aq) is complete as it is a strong acid.
H2SO4 (aq) ⇋ 2H+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)
Mole ratio 1 : 2 : 1
0.0266 : 2(0.0266): 0.0266
Conc. of SO42- ions = 0.0266 mol/dm3
Amount of SO42- ions in 1000cm3 of solution A= 0.0266mol
Therefore, amount of SO42- ions in 250cm3 = (0.0266 × 250)/1000
=0.00665 mol
(iii) 1mol of SO42- ions contains 6.02 × 1023 SO42- ions
Therefore, 0.00665 mol of SO42- ions will contains = (0.00665 × 6.02 × 1023)/1
= 6.65 × 10-3 × 6.02×1023
= 40.033 × 1020
=4.0033 × 1021 SO42- ions
(iv) Conc. of SO42- ions = 0.0266 mol/dm3

Amount of SO42- ions in 1000cm3 of solution A=0.0266 mol
Amount of SO42- ions in 23.50cm3 of solution A = (0.0266 × 23.50)/1000
=6.25 × 10-3mol SO42- ions
Therefore, the amount of SO42- ions that reacted =6.25 × 10-3mol SO42- ions
5. CALCULATION OF THE MOLAR MASS OF AN ACID OR A BASE
Background
In the determination of molar mass of an acid or base by titration, the conc. of the
acid and base must be given. The balanced equation for reaction too may be given
in order to determine the mole ratio of acid to base in the reaction.
Example
A is a solution of containing 3.5g of an acid HX per dm3.B is a containing

0.05mol per dm3 of anhydrous Na2CO3 per dm3 of solution.
your readings.
(i) Molar conc. of solution A;
(ii) Molar mass of A
Equation for reaction is 2HX (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → 2NaX (aq) + H2O (l) +
CO2 (g)
Answer
(a) Take the average volume of A used as 26.10cm3.

(b) Molar conc. of A:
(i)Using
CAVA = nA
CBVB nB
Make CA the subject of the formular

CA= (2 × 0.05 × 25.0)/26.10
= 0.096 mol/dm3
(ii)Molar mass of A
Molar mass= mass conc. /Molar conc.
=3.50/0.096
= 36.5g/mol
Hence, the molar mass of HX = 36.5g/mol
6. CALCULATION OF THE PERCENTAGE OF WATER OF

CRYSTALLIZATION IN A SOLUTION
Background
Hydrated substances are sometimes used in volumetric analysis. But, it must

be noted that during titration process, only the anhydrous part of the hydrated is
actually neutralized, the water of crystallization remains in the solution just like an
impurity.
Example
A is a solution of containing 6.0g per dm3 HCl. B is a containing 12.0g per dm3 of a
hydrated Na2CO3.xH2O.
your readings.
(i) Molar conc. of anhydrous Na2CO3 in solution B.
(ii) Value of x, and hence the percentage of water crystallization in the
solution B.
The equation for the reaction is

2HCl (aq) + Na2CO3.xH2O (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + xH2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Answer

(b) (i) Molar conc. of HCl = mass conc./molar mass
= ρ/M
=6/36.5
= 0.164 mol/dm3
Molar conc. of B:
(i)Using
CAVA = nA
CBVB nB
Make CB the subject of formular
CB= (CA ×VA × nB)/VB × nA
= (0.164 × 13.10 × 1)/25.0 × 2
= 0.042968 mol/dm3
=0.0430 mol/dm3
Therefore, the molar conc. of anhydrous Na2CO3=0.0430 mol/dm3
(ii)Molar mass of the hydrated Na2CO3.xH2O=Mass conc. /Molar conc.
= 12.0/0.0430
= 279.1g/mol
(23×2) + 12 + (16 × 3) + x (1 × 2 + 16) = 279.1
106 + 18x = 279.1
x = 173.1/18
x=9.61
x=10 (nearest whole number)
% of water of crystallization = (mass conc. of hydrated salt-mass conc. of

anhydrous salt)/ (mass conc. of hydrated salt) × 100/1
Mass conc. of the anhydrous salt = Molar conc. × Molar mass
= 0.0430 × 106
= 4.558g/mol
= 4.56g/mol
% of water of crystallization= (12.00-4.56)/12.00 × 100/1
=7.44/12 × 100/1
= 60.0%
7. CALCULATION OF UNKNOWN VALUE(RELATIVE ATOMIC

MASS OF AN ELEMENT IN ) AN ACID OR A BASE
Background
In the determination of molar mass of an acid or base by titration, the conc. of the
acid and base must be given. The balanced equation for reaction too may be given
in order to determine the mole ratio of acid to base in the reaction.
Example
A is a solution of containing 3.5g of an acid HX per dm3.B is a containing

0.05mol per dm3 of anhydrous Na2CO3 per dm3 of solution.
your readings.
(i) Molar conc. of solution A;
(ii) Molar mass of A
(iii) The value of X
Equation for reaction is 2HX (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → 2NaX (aq) + H2O (l) +
CO2 (g)
Answer

(b) Molar conc. of A:
(i)Using
CAVA = nA
CBVB nB
Make CA the subject of the formular
CA= (2 × 0.05 × 25.0)/26.10
= 0.096 mol/dm3
(ii)Molar mass of A
Molar mass= mass conc. /Molar conc.
=3.50/0.096
= 36.5g/mol
Hence, the molar mass of HX = 36.5g/mol
(iii) Therefore, HX=36.5
1+X = 36.6
X = 36.5-1
X= 35.5
8. CALCULATION OF THE SOLUBILITY OF A SOLUTE (ACID OR

BASE) IN WATER.
A is a solution containing 3.8g/dm3 of HCl solution. B was prepared by diluting

150.0cm3 of a saturated of Na2CO3 at room temperature to 1000cm3.

(a) Put A into the burette and titrate it against 20.00cm3 or 25.00cm3 portions of
B using methyl orange as indicator. Tabulate your results and calculate the
average volume of acid used. The equation for the reaction involved in the
titration is :
2HCl (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) →2NaCl (aq) + H2O + CO2 (g)
(b) From your results and the information provided above, calculate the:
(i) concentration of A in mol/dm3
(ii) concentration of B in mol/dm3
(iii) solubility of Na2CO3 in mol/dm3
(iv) mass of salt formed and
(v) volume of CO2 at s.t.p that would be liberated from 1dm3 of B.
(H=1, C=12, O=16, Na=23, Cl=35.5; molar volume of a gas at
s.t.p=22.4dm3)
Answer

(b) (i) Molar conc. of A= Mass conc./Molar mass
Molar mass of HCl=1+35.5=36.5g/mol
Molar conc. of HCl= 3.8/36.5
=0.104mol/dm3
(ii)Molar conc. of B in mol/dm3
CAVA = nA
CBVB nB
0.104 × 23.00/CB × 25.00 =2/1
CB = 0.104 × 23.00/2 × 25.00
CB = 0.0478 mol/dm3
(iii) solubility of Na2CO3 in mol/dm3
150cm3 of B contain 0.0478
1000cm3 of B will contain 0.0478 × 1000/150
Hence, the solubility of Na2CO3 = 0.319 mol/dm3

An alternative method (dilution principle)
From C1V1=C2V2
Where, C1= molar conc. of saturated solution of B=?
C2=molar conc. of diluted solution of B=0.0478mol/dm3
V1= volume of saturated solution of B=150cm3
V1= volume of diluted solution of B=1000cm3
C1 × 150 = 0.0478 × 1000
C1= 0.0478 × 1000/150 = 0.319 mol/dm3
(iv) Mass of NaCl formed:
Molar mass of NaCl= 23 + 35.5 = 58.5g
From the equation, 1 mole of Na2CO3 = 2 mole of NaCl= 2
×0.0478=0.0956 mol.
Hence, mass of NaCl = 58.5 × 0.0956=5.59g
(v) Volume of CO2 liberated at s.t.p from 1dm3 of B
1 mole of Na2CO3 contains 22.4dm3
0.0478 mol of Na2CO3 22.4 × 0.0478 = 1.07dm3
UNIT FOUR
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

It is a type of chemical tests performed on an unknown sample (a compound or

mixture) in order to determine its composition. It could be inorganic qualitative
or organic qualitative analysis.
INORGANIC QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
In inorganic samples, two basic constituents are usually identified. These are
the metallic radicals called cations and acidic radical called anions.
Students/candidates are therefore advised to follow instructions strictly and

watch out for the presence of a chemical reaction. Chemical reaction is usually
recognized by:
1. Evolution of a gas
2. Formation of precipitate
3. Change in colour
4. Evolution or absorption of heat.
1. EVOLUTION OF A GAS
This is usually noticed by the formation of bubbles or effervescence in the

body of the test tube solution. Whenever a gas is given off, take note the colour,
odour of the gas, and test with moist red and blue litmus papers for acidicity or
alkalinity of the gas. Then, perform some specific tests (known as confirmatory
tests) on the gas.
(a) (i) TEST FOR GASES (IDENTIFICATION OF GASES)

Gases are given off when certain substances are either heated alone or
when mineral acids are added to such substances. They are identified by
their colour, odour, and action on moist litmus paper through confirmatory
tests. The table below gives some common gases with their colour, odour,
and action on litmus, confirmatory tests
Gas Colour Odour Action on Confirmatory

Litmus Test
Water Vapour, Colourless Odourless Neutral It turns white
H2O(g) anhydrous
CuSO4 blue or
blue CoCl2
Pink
Oxygen, Colourless Odourless Neutral Rekindle a
O2 glowing splint
Hrogen gas, Colourless Odourless Neutral It burns in air
H2 with pop
sound
Carbon(ii) Colourless Odourless Acidic It burns with
Oxide, blue flame to
CO give CO2
Carbon(iv) Colourless Odourless Acidic It turns lime
Oxide, water milky
CO2
Sulphur (iv) Colourless Chocking Acidic 1. It
Oxide, Smell of extinguishes
SO2 burning wooden
Sulphur or splinter.
Suffocating or 2.It turns lime
Pungent water milky
3.It turns
purple colour
of acidified
KMnO4
solution
colourless
4. It turns
orange colour
of acidified
K2Cr2O7
solution green
Sulphur (vi) Smoky white Chocking Acidic It turns BaCl2
Oxide, fumes Smell solution on
SO3 glass rod
milky
Chlorine gas, Pale green Pungent Acidic 1. It oxidizes
Cl2 KI solution to
give brown
solution of I2.
2.It turns
starch-Iodide
paper black
Hdrogen Colourless It has rotten Acidic 1.It turns
Sulphide, egg smell purple colour
H2S of acidified
KMnO4
solution
colourless
2. It turns
orange colour
of acidified
K2Cr2O7
solution green
3. It darkens
lead ethanoate
paper black or
lead
containing
solution black.
Hydrogen Steamy fumes Pungent Acidic 1.It forms
Chloride, dense white
HCl fumes with
NH3 gas
2. It turns
AgNO3
solution on
glass rod
milky.
Ammonia gas, Colourless Pungent Alkaline 1.It forms
NH3 dense white
fumes with
HCl gas
Nitrogen (i) Colourless Sweetish Neutral It rekindles a

Oxide, glowing splint
N2O
Nitrogen (ii) It turns brown Pungent Neutral It darken
Oxide, FeSO4 solution
NO
Nitrgen (iv) Brown fumes Pungent Acidic It darken
oxide, FeSO4 solution
NO2
(ii) METHODS OF COLLECTION OF GASES
a. Downwards delivery or upwards displacement of air: Used for collection

gases that are denser then air, e.g CO2, SO2, Cl2, HCl, etc
b. Upwards delivery or downwards displacement of air: Used for collection
of gases that are less dense than air, e.g H2,NH3,He
c. Collection of gases over water: Used for collection of gases that are not
very soluble in water.e.g NO,H2,N2,CO
d. Collection of gases in syringe: Used for collection of gases when the
volume of the gas needs to be measured.
(iii)DRYING AGENTS FOR GASES COLLECTED OVER WATER
a. Conc. H2SO4: Used for drying all gases except H2S and NH3
b. Fused CaCl2: Used for drying all gases except NH3
c. CaO:Used for drying NH3 in particular and neutral gases such as H2,O2
d. P2O5:Used for drying all gases except NH3
e. Silical gel: Used for drying all gases without exceptions.
2. FORMATION OF PRECIPITATES
Precipitation is a type of chemical reaction in which an insoluble solid is formed

from a mixture of two solutions. The insoluble solid substance is called precipitate
(ppt.).Whenever a ppt. is formed, the nature, colour should be noted. Then, identify
it by chemical test or by solubility.
The quantitative analysis of a given inorganic sample is carried out in three

stages. They are

(i) Preliminary tests

(ii) Tests for cations
(iii) Tests for anions
Some tests can be performed on the unknown solid sample directly while in
others, it is required in solution form. Tests should be performed on true
solution of the unknown sample and not on suspension.
Preparation of a solution
Small quantity of an unknown sample is dissolved in water. If the does not

dissolve in cold water or hot water, try other solvents, first cold and second hot,
in the following order (i)dilute HCl (ii) conc. HCl (iii) conc. HNO3 (iii) a
mixture of conc. HCl and HNO3.You have allow the hot solution to cool before
performing chemical tests on it.
(i) Preliminary Tests
These involve physical properties, action of heat on unknown sample and

flame test.
(a) Physical properties
It involves appearance, solubility and odour of the sample. Below are the
colours some laboratory salts.
Appearance of substances
(i) Copper (ii) salts

1. Copper (ii) chloride,CuCl2------green
2. Copper (ii) trioxocarbonate (iv),CuCO3---------light green
3. Copper (ii) trioxonitrate (v),Cu(NO)3-------- greenish blue
4. Copper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi), CuSO4----------blue.
(ii) Iron(ii) and iron (iii) salts
1. Iron (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi), FeSO4-----------light green
2. Iron (ii) sulphide,FeS-----------------brown
3. Iron (iii) tetraoxosulphate. Fe2 (SO4)3

4. Iron (iii) chloride, FeCl3------------yellow
(iii) Lead (ii) salts
1. Lead (ii) chloride,PbCl2----------white

2. Lead (ii) trioxocarbonate (iv),PbCO3---------white
3. Lead (ii) trioxonitrate (v),PbNO3------------white
(iv) Anhydrous cobalt (ii) chloride,CoCl2----------pink
(v) Manganese (iv) oxide,MnO2 and Copper (ii) oxide,CuO---------black
(vi) Calcium Chloride,CaCl2 and Calcium trioxocarbonate (iv),CaCO3------
white
(vii) Zinc sulphide,ZnS, Zinc oxide ZnO and Zinc trioxocarbonate
(iv),ZnCO3-------------------white
(viii) Zinc Chloride,ZnCl2 and Zinc tetraoxosulphate (iv),ZnSO4--------white
(ix) Aluminum chloride,AlCl3------white
(x) Aluminum oxide,Al2O3----------white
(xi) Ammonium chloride,NH4Cl-------white
(xii) Sdium trioxonitrate (v),NaNO3------white
(xiii) Sodium chloride,NaCl-------white
(xiv) Magnesium chloride,MgCl2--------white
The appearance of the sample
*If the sample and its solution in water are colourless, it probably means that
transition metals are absent
* If it is black, it is probably an oxide or sulphide
* If the solid or its solution in water is colour, it probably contains a transition

metal.
Samples Solution containing the Colour of the solution

indicated ions below
Cr3+ Green

Cr2O72- Orange
Mn2+ Colourless
MnO4- Purple
Fe2+ Green
Fe3+ Reddish brown
Cu2+ Blue
Solubility of substances in water
Inorganic substances
1. All NO3- salts are soluble in water

2. All HCO3- salts are soluble in water
3. All common salts of Na+, K+ and HN4+ are soluble in water.
4. All CO32- salts are insoluble in water except those of Na+, K+ and HN4+
5. All SO32- salts are insoluble in water except those of Na+, K+ and HN4+
6. All OH- salts are insoluble in water except those of Na+, K+ and HN4+
7. All SO42- salts are soluble in water except those of Ba, Ca, Pb, Ag, and Hg
***A an aid to your memory, use :( Lionel MerSil of BaCa), meaning that
Mer stand for Mercury, Sil for Silver, Ba for Barium and Ca for Calcium.
8. All Cl- are soluble in water except those of Hg, Ag and Pb with Cu2Cl2 which
is sparing soluble in water. As an aid to your memory, use (Lionel MerSil)
9. All S2- are insoluble in water except those of Na+, K+ and HN4+

Organic substances
1. All monosaccharides are soluble in water.
2. All disaccharides are soluble in water, e.g sucrose, lactose, alcohols, amides,
aldehydes and ketones. All give neutral solutions.
3. All Carboxylic acids are soluble in water to give acidic solution.
4. All amines which give an alkaline solutions.
5. All polysaccharides are insoluble in water, e.g starch, glucose, cellulose,

insulin.
Action of heat
The action of heat on the unknown solid sample may serve as a guide suspect
the presence of certain ions in a given unknown sample. Put the sample an ignition
test tube and heat gently first and then strongly until no further changes occur.
Watch for:
 The colour and odour of the gas given off if any;

 The changes which occur when the gas is tested with both
moist red and blue litmus papers;
 The action of the gas on a glowing splint;
 The presence of colourless water droplets on the cool parts
of the test-tube;
 Changes in nature of the substance;
 Changes in the colour and nature of the residue when hot
and cold
The table below shows leading information
(a) Gas Suspected Salts

1.NH3 Ammonium salt
2.HCl Hydrated chloride not of group 1 or Ba
3.SO2 or H2S Sulphur compounds
4.SO3 Sulphate not of group 1,Ca or Ba
5.NO2 or O2 Nitrates
6.O2 Nitrates of group 1 and other oxygen

rich compounds such as chlorates,
peroxides and manganates
7.CO2 Carbonates and hydrogen carbonate not

of group1 and Ba.
(b) Sublimation 1. White sublimate on cool part of the

test tube indicates an ammonium salt.
2.Purple vapour condensing to black

solid indicates iodine crystals
3 .Yellow sublimate which melts easily

is sulphur.
(c) Water vapour Colourless droplets on cool parts of test

tube indicates water of crystallization or
HCO3
(d) Residue 1.Yellow when hot and white when cold

indicates ZnO
2.Reddish brown when hot and yellow

when cold indicates PbO

3.Redish brown indicates F2O3
4. Black indicates oxides of Copper or

Iron,CuO or FeO.
5. Charring (uneven blackening)

indicates the presence of carbon.
FLAME TEST
Dip a clean nichrome or platinum wire into conc. HCl and then into the sample
solution. Heat the end of wire containing the sample in a flame and observe the
colour of the flame. The table below gives the leading information.
Observation Inference
Intense golden yellow Na+
Lilac colour K+
Brick red Ca+
Light green Ba2+
Blue-green Cu2+
Blue Pb2+
NOTE
A faint or temporary yellow colour is due to traces of sodium impurity. Many

compounds contain small quantity of sodium.
(i) TEST FOR CATIONS

Cations are the positively charged ions. Most cations are identified by the
nature and colour of their hydroxides. The cations to be identified according to
WAEC syllabus are eight in number. They are: Ca2+; Zn2+; Al3+ Pb2+; Cu2+; Fe2+;
Fe3+ and NH4+.
The analysis of anions is carried out in three stages which are:
(a) The preliminary test: This is the appearance of the salts samples.
(b) Action of heat on the original sample in order to produce a residue f
characteristic colour.
(c) Addition of suitable reagents such as NaOH (aq) or NH3 (aq) in order to the
solution of the original sample in order to precipitate an insoluble substance
of characteristic colour.
The action of NaOH (aq) on cations in solutions
Add NaOH (aq) drop by drop to small quantity of the unknown sample solution
until it is in excess. The table below gives the summary of the results of using
NaOH (aq).
Cations Ppt. formed Colour of ppt. Drops of Excess of

NaOH(aq) NaOH(aq)
Ca2+ Ca(OH)2 White Insolule Insolule
Zn2+ Zn(OH)2 White Insolule Solule
Al3+ Al(OH)3 White Insolule Solule
Pb2+ Pb(OH)2 White Insolule Solule
Cu2+ Cu(OH)2 Blue Insolule Insolule
Fe2+ Fe(OH)2 Green Insolule Insolule

Fe3+ Fe(OH)3 Reddish Insolule Insolule

brown
NOTE:
1. Hydroxides of group one elements are freely soluble in water.

2. Ammonia gas is liberated by warming NaOH (aq) and ammonium salts.
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)→ NH3(g) + H2O(l)
3. Hydroxides of Zn2+, Pb2+ and Al3+ are amphoteric. They dissolve in excess
NaOH to form complex ions, e.g.
Al(OH)3(aq) + OH-(aq) → Al(OH)4-(aq)
Zn(OH)2(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → Zn(OH)42-(aq)
Pb(OH)2(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → Pb(OH)42-(aq)
4. The ppt. formed by Cu2+, Fe2+ and Fe3+ are creamy or jelly-like and are,
therefore, described as being gelatinous.
*** As an aid to your memory, use ZAL stands for: Zinc, Aluminum and Lead
are soluble in excess NaOH (aq).
The action of NH3 (aq) on cations in solutions
The results of using NH3 (aq) are similar to those of NaOH (aq).
Cations Ppt. formed Colour of ppt. Drops of Excess of

NH3(aq) NH3(aq)
Ca2+ Ca(OH)2 No ppt. No ppt. No ppt.
Zn2+ Zn(OH)2 White Insolule Solule
Al3+ Al(OH)3 White Insolule Inolule

Pb2+ Pb(OH)2 White Insolule Inolule
Cu2+ Cu(OH)2 Blue Insolule Solule
Fe2+ Fe(OH)2 Green Insolule Insolule
Fe3+ Fe(OH)3 Reddish Insolule Insolule

brown
NOTE:
1. There are ppt. with Ca2+

2. The ppt. formed by Zn2+ dissolves in NH3 (aq) to give colourless solution.
Zn (OH) 2(s) + 6 NH3 (aq) → [Zn (NH3)6]2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Hexammine zinc (ii) ion
3. The ppt. formed by Cu2+ dissolves in NH3 (aq) to give deep-blue solution.
Cu (OH) 2(s) + 4 NH3 (aq) → [Cu (NH3)4]2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

Tetrammine copper (ii) ion
*** As an aid to your memory, use ZiCo for: Zinc and Copper (ZiCo) are
soluble in excess NH3 (aq).
Confirmatory Tests for the cations in solutions
These are tests performed on a test solution to ascertain (or establish) the
presence of a particular ion in it.
1. Pb2+(aq)
(a) Test: Test solution + dil HCl + warm

(b) Observation: A white ppt. which dissolves on warming and reappears on

cooling is observed.
(c) Inference: Pb2+ is confirmed present
OR
(a) Test: Test solution + KI (aq) or K2CrO4(aq) + warm

(b) Observation: A yellow shinning ppt. which dissolves on warming and
reappears on cooling is observed.
(c) Inference: Pb2+ is confirmed present
2. Fe2+(aq)
(a) Test: Test solution + Potassium hexacyanoferrate (iii)
solution,K3Fe(CN)6(aq)
(b) Observation: A deep blue ppt. is observed.
(c) Inference: Fe2+ confirmed present.
3. Fe3+(aq)
(a) Test: Test solution + Potassium hexacyanoferrate (ii) solution,
K4Fe(CN)6(aq)
(b) Observation: A deep blue ppt. is observed.
(c) Inference: Fe3+ is confirmed present.
OR
K3Fe(CN)6(aq)
(b) Observation: A brown solution is observed.
(c) Inference: Fe3+ is confirmed present.
OR
Fe3+ (aq)
(a) Test: Test solution + potassium thiocyanate solution, KSCN(aq)

(b) Observation: A blood red colour is observed.
(c) Inference: Fe3+ confirmed present
OR
4. Cu2+(aq)
K4Fe(CN)6(aq)
(b) Observation: A reddish brown ppt.
(c) Inference: Cu2+ confirmed present
OR
Cu2+(aq)
(a) Test: Test solution + Potassium Iodide solution, KI(aq)

(b) Observation: A brown coloration and an off white ppt.
OR
Cu2+(aq)
(a) Test: Test solution + Potassium thiocyanate solution,KSCN(aq)

(b) Observation: A black ppt.
(ii) TEST FOR ANIONS
Anions are the negatively charged ions. The anions to be identified

according to WAEC/NECO syllabus are seven in number. They are: S2-; CO32-;
HCO3- ; Cl-; NO3-; SO42-; and SO32-.
The analysis of anions is carried out in three stages which are:
(d) The preliminary test: This is the appearance of the salts samples.
(e) Testing for volatile products (dry test): This is usually carried out by (i)the
action of heat on the solid sample salts and (ii) the action of mineral acids
(e.g dilute HCl or concentrated H2SO4 solution) on the solid sample salts
(f) Testing for anions in solution (wet test):It is usually carried out by (i) the
action of precipitating reagent such as AgNO3(aq),BaCl2(aq),etc on the salts
solution in order to precipitate an insoluble salt with a characteristic colour
(ii) the action of oxidizing agent such as KMnO4(aq),FeCl3(aq).
The action of dilute hydrogen chloride acid, HCl (Dry Tests)
Add a little quantity of dil. HCl to some of the solid sample. Warm if
necessary but do not heat strongly. Test any gas that is evolved. The evolution
of HCl gas indicates nothing. Leading results can be obtained from the table
below.
Test Observation Inference
(i) Sample + dil. Effervescence occurs. A The gas is H2S

HCl gas that smells like rotten
egg which blackens lead S2- is present
(ii) ethanoate paper or
decourlorized acidified
KMnO4 solution or turns
the orange colour of
K2Cr2O7 solution green is
given off.
(ii) Sample + Effervescence occurs. A The gas is SO2.

dil.HCl colourless gas with 2-
chocking smell of burning SO3 present
sulphur which
decourlorized acidified
KMnO4 solution or turn

the orange colour of
K2Cr2O7 green is given off
(iii) Sample + Effervescence occurs. A The gas is CO2.

dil.HCl colourless, odourless gas
which turns lime water
milky is given off. CO32- or HCO3- present
(iv) Sample + Effervescence occurs. An The gas is NO2.

dil.HCl unpleasant smell brown
gas brown gas which NO3- present
darkens FeSO4 (aq) is
given off.
The action of conc. tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid, Conc.H2SO4 (Dry Tests)
Add little quantity of conc. H2SO4 to some of the solid sample. Warm if
necessary but do not heat strongly. Test the gas evolved. The evolution of SO2 or
SO3 gas indicates nothing. Leading results can be obtained from the table below.
Test Observation Inference
(i) Sample + conc. Steamy fumes with The gas is HCl.

H2SO4 pungent smell which
forms a dense white fume Cl- is present.
with ammonia gas and
turns AgNO3 solution on
glass rod milky.
(ii) Sample + conc. A brown gas which The gas is NO2

H2SO4 intensifies on adding
copper turnings or NO3- is present.
Devarda’s alloy
Confirmatory Tests for the anions in solutions (Wet Tests)
These are tests performed on a test solution to ascertain (establish) the presence
of a particular ion in it.
1. Test for NO3-(aq) (Brown Ring Test)

(a) Test: Test solution + freshly prepared FeSO4 (aq).With the test–tube in a
slanting form, add few drops of conc.H2SO4 down the side of the solution
in the test tube.
(b) Observation: A brown ring of FeSO4.NO complex is formed at the
junction of the acid and the solution.
(c) Inference: NO3- ion is confirmed present.
2. Test for SO32- (aq)

(a) Test: Test solution + BaCl2 (aq) + dil. HCl
(b) Observation: A white ppt. which is soluble in dil.HCl is observed
(c) Inference: SO32- ion is confirmed present.
OR
(a) Test: Test solution + few drops of dil.H2SO4 +drops of KMnO4(aq)

(b) Observation: The purple colour of KMnO4 (aq) is decolourized (or discharged).
(c) Inference: SO32- ion is confirmed present.
NB
K2Cr2O7 (aq) can be used in place of KMnO4 (aq).But, the colour will
change from orange to green.
3. Test for CO32-(aq)

(a) Test: Test solution + BaCl2 (aq) or MgSO4+ dil. HCl
(b) Observation: A white ppt. which is soluble in dil.HCl is observed
(c) Inference: SO32- or CO32 ion is present.
OR
(a) Test: Test solution + few drops of Phenolphthalein solution + heat
(b) Observation: The solution turns purple or pink.
(c) Inference: CO32- ion is confirmed present.
4. Test for HCO3-(aq)
(a) Test: Test solution + BaCl2 (aq) or MgSO4+ heat
(b) Observation: No reaction, no ppt., but on warming, a white ppt. is formed.

(c) Inference: HCO3- ion is present.

OR
(a) Test: Test solution + few drops of Phenolphthalein solution + heat
(b) Observation: The solution remains colourless, but on warming, the solution
turns pink.
(c) Inference: HCO3- ion is confirmed.
5. Test for S2-(aq)
(a) Test: Test solution + Pb(NO3)2 (aq)
(b) Observation: A black ppt. is formed.
(c) Inference: S2- is confirmed
NB
Pb (CH3COO)2(aq) called lead (ii) ethanoate can be used instead of Pb (NO3)2

(aq)
6. Test for SO42- (aq)

(d) Test: Test solution + dil. HCl +BaCl2 (aq)
(e) Observation: A white ppt. which is insoluble in dil.HCl is observed
(f) Inference: SO42- ion is confirmed present.
7. Test for Cl- (aq)
(a) Test: Test solution dil. HNO3+ AgNO3 (aq) in drops and then in excess
(b) Observation: A white ppt. which turns grey on exposure to sunlight and
soluble in NH3 (aq)
(c) Inference: Cl- is confirmed
UNIT FIVE
QUALITATIVE ORGANIC ANALYSIS
It helps to identify the various elements, saturated, unsaturated compounds and

functional groups present in organic compounds. The methods used are:

(i) Preliminary tests: These refer to physical state, smell and action of heat
on the sample.
(ii) Solubility of organic compounds in water, saturated
NaHCO3(aq),NaOH(aq),dil.HCl;
(iii) Detection of elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens in the
organic compounds;
(iv) Test for saturation using bromine water and acidified KMnO4 solution;
(v) Test for functional groups like akenes, alkynes, alkanals, alkanones,
alkanoic acid, sugars, starch and proteins.
TEST FOR UNSATURATION (ALKENE AND ALKYNES)
Test Observation
(i) Solution of unsaturated Reddish brown of bromine water

organic compound + few decolourized
drops of bromine
water,HOBr(aq)
(ii) Solution of unsaturated Purple colour of KMnO4 solution is

organic compound + decolourized
acidified KMnO4(aq)
(iii) Solution of unsaturated Purple colour of KMnO4 solution

organic compound + turns green
alkaline KMnO4(aq)
(iv) Solution of unsaturated Reddish brown ppt. formed with

organic compound + alkyne (but no visible reaction with
ammoniacal copper(i) alkene)
chloride solution
NB: The test above is used to distinguish alkenes from terminal alkynes.H2S
and SO2 gases also decolourize bromine water.

1. TEST FOR FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

a. Test for alkanols (-OH)
Test Observation
Portion of saturated alcohol + Oily liquid with a characteristic
CH3COOH + few drops of conc. pleasant fruit smell is formed (liquid
H2SO4 solution then boil. is ester)
b. Test for alkanoic acids (-COOH)
Test Observation
Portion of the compound + saturate Effervescence of colourless and
NaHCO3(aq) or KHCO3 (aq) or odourless gas which turns moist blue
Na2CO3 (aq). litmus paper red and lime water
milky was given off
2. TEST FOR SUGAR (USING FEHLING’S AND BENEDICT’S

SOLUTIONS)
a. Test for sugar using Fehling’s solution
Test Observation
Portion of the compound + Fehling’s Yellow ppt. which changes to brick-
solution then warm. red when heated (reducing sugar
such as glucose, fructose, galactose,
maltose and lactose) are present.
b. Test for sugar using Benedict’s solution
Test Observation
Portion of the compound + Orange-red or yellow ppt(reducing
Benedict’s solution then warm. are present)
NB: Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar and does not for ppt with Fehling’s
solution or Benedict’s solution.

3. TEST FOR STARCH (USING DILUTE IODINE SOLUTION)

a. Test for starch using dilute iodine solution
Test Observation
(i) Portion of the compound + dilute It turn the solution blue-black
iodine solution
Mixture from (i) above + gentle heat Blue-black colour disappears on
and it should be allowed to cool. heating and reappears on cooling.
4. TEST FOR PROTEIN (USING BIURET’S ,MILLION’S AND

XANTHROPROTEIC TEST)
The test is carried out on a sample of protein
a. Test for protein using Biuret reagent
Test Observation
Portion of the compound + Violet pr purple ppt. confirms
NaOH(aq) + CuSO4(aq) shaken presence protein
thoroughly then warm
b. Test for protein using Million’s reagent
Test Observation
(i)Portion of the compound + White ppt
Million’s reagent
(ii)Mixture from b(i) above + heat Deep or brick red ppt.
c. Test Xanthroproteic reagent
Test Observation
Portion of the compound + drops of Yellow ppt which turns orange on
conc.HNO3(aq)+ heat ,then few addition of NaOH(aq) or NH3(aq)
drops of NaOH(aq) or NH3(aq)

UNIT SIX
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY IN BRIEF
Background
General Characteristics of Organic Compounds
1. Most organic compounds are covalent: They are generally non-

polar and do not conduct electricity.
2. Melting and boiling points: Organic compounds possess relatively
weak intermolecular bonds which can be easily broken by heat
energy. Hence, most organic compounds are gases, volatile or low
melting solids.
3. Reactivity: Many organic reactions are relatively slow compared
with those of inorganic compounds. This is why prolonged heating
sometimes in the presence of catalyst is needed.
4. Decomposition on heating: Most organic compounds decompose
exothermically on heating and burns in air to produce carbon (iv)
oxide and water.
5. Solubility: Organic compounds are usually soluble in organic, on-
polar solvents such as benzene, petrol, ethanol, tetra chloromethane,
ether, etc but tend to insoluble in water unless they contain hydroxyl
(-OH),amino (-NH2),carboxy (-CO2H),sulphonic acid (-SO3H) or
other polar groups. Some organic compounds dissolve in water
because they can enter into hydrogen bonding with water. Some
others dissolve because they are hydrate and the hydrate can enter
into hydrogen bonding.
Generally, the solubility within any series decreases with
increasing molecular weight and aromatic compounds are generally less
soluble than the corresponding aliphatic ones.

6. Isomerism: This is the phenomenon whereby organic compounds

with the same molecular formula differ in the arrangement of the
atoms in their molecules.
TESTS FOR CERTAIN FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
1. Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes)

The general formula CnH2n+2 where n is a whole number. The alkanes are
relatively unreactive chemically since the atoms are linked by single
bonds only. Where reaction occurs, it process by substitution method.
a. Combustion
The lower alkanes burn with a non-luminous flame. However, the
larger the number of carbon atoms (and hence the percentage of carbon)
in an alkane molecule, the more luminous is its flame.
b. Halogenation
Alkanes do not react with the halogens (chlorine or bromine) in the
dark at room temperature.However, in the presence of a suitable
catalyst or light or high temperature; they react by substitution to yield
a mixture of halogenated alkanes.
2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
The unsaturated hydrocarbons are those which contain one or more carbon-
carbon double or triple bonds. Those with double bonds are called the alkenes
while those with triple bonds are called the alkynes.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction because they contain

multiple bonds >C=C< or -C≡C-.They are relatively more reactive than the
alkanes especially attacked by electrophiles (electrons seeking substances) or free
radicals; reactivity of hydrocarbons increases in order: alkanes < alkenes <alkynes.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn incompletely in air with a luminous and smoky
flame. The presence of soot in the flame indicates high carbon content.
Test for Unsaturation

1. Action with bromine or bromine water

The unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo rapid reaction with bromine or
bromine water, changing the reddish brown colour of the reagent to
colourless.
a. CH2
║ + HOBr → CH2
CH2 Bromine water │
(reddish brown) CH2OH
2-bromo ethanol (colourless)
b. CH CHBr CHBr2
III + Br2 → || + Br2 → |
CH (Bromine) CHBr CHBr2
2. Action with acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate (vii) solution.KMnO4
The unsaturated hydrocarbons decolourize the purple colour of acidified

potassium tetraoxomanganate (vii) solution
CH2 = CH2 + H20 + O- → CH2OH
from KMnO4 solution |
CH2OH
Ethane-1, 2-diol
HO OH
│ │
CH≡CH + 4O → O=C—C=O
from KMnO4 solution ethanedioic acid

In this case, the manganate (vii) solution is reduced to colourless manganate (ii)
ions, Mn2+.This reaction is not however used as a distinctive test for unsaturation
since the solution is also decolourized by reducing agents.
Tests for Ethyne
The hydrogen atoms in ethyne are weakly acidic and may be replaced by a metal,
e.g
1. Action with ammoniacal copper(i)chloride solution

Ethyne reacts with a ammoniacal copper (i) chloride solution to form a red
precipitate of copper (i) dicarbide.
C2H2 (g) + 2CuCl (aq) →Cu2C2 (aq) + 2HCl (aq)
red ppt.
2. Action with ammoniacal silver trioxonitrate(v) solution

Ethyne when mixed with ammoniacal silver trioxonitrate (v) solution forms
a white precipitate of silver (i) dicarbide, Ag2C2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
C2H2 (g) + 2AgNO3 (aq) →Ag2C2 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq)
white ppt.
These reactions are important because they are used to distinguish ethyne from
ethane which does not form these metallic derivatives. Also, alkynes with general
formula R-C≡R-R do not give positive results with aqueous ammoniacal solution
of silver (i) or copper (i) ions.Hence, those reactions may be used as a test for the
presence of a terminal triple bond.
Reaction Ethane Ethene Ethyne
Combustion Bluish Yellow flame Yellow sooty

flame(non-

luminous) (luminous) flame(luminous)
Bromine water No reaction Decolourize Decolourize

(reddish brown)
Acidified KMnO4 No reaction Decolourize Decolourize

solution(purple)
Ammoniacal No reaction No reaction Red ppt forms

copper(i) chloride
solution
Ammoniacal silver No reaction No reaction White ppt. forms

trioxonitrate (v)
solution
Reactions of certain functional groups
1. Alkanols –OH
a. Reaction with highly electropositive metals
Alkanols are much weaker acids than water. Hence; they react much less
vigorously with sodium (and other highly electropositive metals) to form an
alkoxide and hydrogen gas.e.g
2C2H5OH (l) + 2Na → 2C2H5Na (aq) + H2 (g)
The alkoxide dissolves readily in water to form an alkaline solution.
b.Reaction with alkanoic (carboxylic) acid
Alkanols react with carboxylic acids in the presence of a strong acid catalyst such
as concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid to form esters. Esters have a
characteristic pleasant smell.

R-COH + Ŕ-OH → R-C-O-Ŕ + H2O
║ Alkanol ║
O O
Carboxylic Ester
Acid
c. Reaction with oxidizing agents
Alkanols may be oxidized by strong oxidizing agents such as potassium

tetraoxosulhate (vii) and potassium heptaoxodicromate (vi) solutions. Oxidation
with these oxidizing agents is usually accompanied by a change in colour. For
example,the purple colour of manganate (vii) is decolourized and the orange colour
of dichromate (vi) changes to green. The product formed depends on the class of
the alkanols being oxidized.
(i) Primary alkanols: Primary alkanols are oxidized to akanals

(aldehydes) which are further oxidized to alaknoic acids.
[O] [O]
RCH2OH → R-CHO → R-COOH
Primary alkanol Alkanal Alkanoic acid
(ii) Secondary alkanols: Secondary alkanols yields alkanones(ketones)

which are difficult to oxidize further.
[O] [O]
R2CH-OH → R2CO → X
Secondary Alkanol Alkanone
(iii) Tertiary alkanols: Tertiary alkanols resist oxidation

[O]
R3C-OH → X

2. Alkanoic (Carboxylic —C—OH
(a) Alkanioc (carboxylic) acids ionize partially in dilute solution thus:
R—COOH⇋ R—COO- + H+
They show all the usual properties of acid. For example:
(i) They liberate carbon (iv) oxide from carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates;
2RCOOH + CO32- → 2RCOO- + H2O + CO2
RCOOH + HCO3- → RCOO- + H2O + CO2
(ii) They are attacked by strong electropositive metals to liberate hydrogen.
2RCOOH +2Na → 2RCOONa + H2
(iii) They neutralize alkalis and bases to form salts and water only.
RCOOH + NaOH→ RCOONa + H2O
Sodium alkanoate
(b) Reaction with alkanols

Alkanoic acids react with alkanols in the presence of a mineral acid catalyst
to form esters and water. The reaction is known as esterification.
R-COOH + Ŕ-OH → RCOOŔ + H2O
Alkanioc acid Alkanol Alkanoate
(Ester)
(c)Reaction with oxidizing agents
The alkanoic acids, with the exception of methanoic acid, are extremely
resistant to oxidation.

3. Alkanals (Aldehydes) —C—H

Alkanals are reducing agents; hence they undergo the following special
reactions:
(a) Reaction with Tollen’s reagent
Alkanals reduce Tollen’s reagent to metallic silver, thus forming a black

colouration with silver mirror on the inner walls of the test-tube. NB:The
Tollen’s reagent contains a complex ion of silver which is reduced to
metallic silver.
(b)Reaction with Fehling’s solution:

Alkanals reduce Fehling’s solution to a red precipitate of copper (i)
oxide.
(c) Reaction with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine
Alkanals react with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine reagent to form a yellow
precipitate of 2, 4-dinitrophenyl hydrazone.
|
4. Alanonoes (Ketones) —C=O
Alkanones unlike the alkanals are not reducing agents so they have no
effect on Fehling’s solution or ammoniacal silver trioxonitrate (v)
solution.However,alkanones can be oxidized in the presence of powerful
oxidizing agent to produce a mixture of alkanoic acid, each containing fewer
carbon atoms than the original alkanone. Also, alkanones react in the same
way as alkanals with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine reagent.
O
║
5. Alkanaotes (Esters) —C—O—
Esters generally have strong pleasant fruity smell. Esters are hydrolyzed at
room temperature to produce alkanol and alkanoic acid.

H2O
R-C-O-Ŕ → RCOOH + ROH
FOOD TESTS
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate are usually naturally occurring compounds containing
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with the last two elements being present the
same proportion as water, that is 2:1.
Classification
Carbohydrates are classified into two main groups namely: sugars and
non-sugars (or polysaccharides)
1. Sugars:
Sugars are:
 Crystalline white solids
 Soluble in water
 Sweet tasting
Sugars are subdivided into monosaccharides and disaccharides.
Monosaccharides
Monosaacharides are sugars with six or less carbon atoms in each

molecules,e.g glucose or fructose C6H12O6 otherwise known as the hexoses because
they contain six carbon atoms per molecule. Other examples are those with 5 or 3
carbon atoms per molecule also known as pentoses and trioses respectively.
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of sugars and cannot be hydrolysed to
simpler sugars.
Disaccharides
These are sugars with formula C12H22O11.Examples are sucrose and maltose.
They undergo hydrolysis in the presence of a dilute acid to yield two
monosaccharide units. For example:
C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Sucrose glucose fructose
(Aldohexose) (Ketohexose)
Maltose + Water → 2 glucose molecules
2. Non –sugars or the polysaccharides
The polysaccharides:
 Have very high relative molecular mass

 Are non-crystalline solids(they are amorphous)
 Are insoluble in water
 Are tastless
 Hydrolyze to yield many hundreds or thousands of
monosaccharides.Examples are starch and cellulose (found in plants) and
glycogen(found in animals)
(C6H12O5)n + nH2O → n C6H12O6
Starch glucose
Test for sugars
1. Action of sodium hydroxide

All sugars turn yellow and then brown when their aqueous solution is
warmed with sodium hydroxide. The mixture has a characteristic smell.
2. Dehydration
All sugars are dehydrated by concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid to
yield a black mass of sugar charcoal, which is virtually pure carbon, e.g
C6H12O6 (s) Con.H2SO4→ 6C(s) + 6H2O(l)
Test for glucose
The glucose molecule contain 6 carbon atoms and an aldehydic group;
hence the name aldohexose.Because of the presence of the aldehydic
group in its molecule, glucose is a strong reducing agent and is
sometimes called a reducing sugar.Glucose,therefore,reduces:

(i) Ammoniacal silver trioxonitrate (v) (Tollen’s reagent) to metallic

silver; hence the formation of silver mirror on the inner walls of the
test-tube.
(ii) It turns Fehling’s solution to red precipitate of copper (i) oxide.
Fehling’s solution is prepared as required by mixing equal volumes of
Fehling’s solution I and II.
(iii) It turns Benedict’s solution to a yellow precipitate.
TEST FOR PROTEINS
a. The Biuret Test

(i) Test: Sample + NaOH(aq) in drops and shaken thoroughly and warm
(ii) Observation: Violet or purple ppt.
(iii) Inference: Protein is confirmed present.
b. The millions Test

(i) Test: Sample + Millions reagent + heat
(ii) Observation: White ppt which turns deep or brick red ppt. on heating.
c. The xanthroproteic Test

(i) Test: Sample + conc. HNO3 (aq) in drops + heat.Then,add few drops of
NaOH(aq) or NH3(aq)
(ii) Observation: Yellow ppt which turns orange on adding NaOH(aq) or
NH3(aq)

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By WittyProfTunde Gbolahan

(A.K.A SON OF MAN)

1 WATCH WORD: KNOWLEDGE GOVERNS IGNORANCE.

REASONS FOR CANDIDATES’ POOR PERFORMANCES IN

It has been observed that poor performance of candidates in Practical

a. Inability to understand and interpret the demands of the question in terms

(iv) use of trivial names instead of IUPAC names

(v) poor expressions and wrong spellings

d. Poor arithmetic calculations, omission of units and use of wrong units.

e. Inability to relate the theory to practical as revealed in their responses to test

g. Inadequate exposure to practical works, for examples, lack of knowledge of

h. Inadequate coverage of the syllabus.

i. Failure to record observations as the time they were made.

3 WATCH WORD: KNOWLEDGE GOVERNS IGNORANCE.

Volumetric analysis is a method used by chemists to determine quantity of

Titration is an important method in volumetric analysis in which a solution of

CLASSIFICATION OF VOLUMETRIC METHODS

There are four general classes of volumetric methods namely:

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

In titration, there is a test substance called analyte which is usually

4 WATCH WORD: KNOWLEDGE GOVERNS IGNORANCE.

EQUIVALENCE POINT AND END-POINT

The goal of every titration is the addition of standard solution in an amount

GENERAL TIPS FOR ACCURATE AND PRECISE

10. Avoid parallax errors by taking the readings at eye level.

5 WATCH WORD: KNOWLEDGE GOVERNS IGNORANCE.

The common volumetric apparatuses are: volumetric flask, burettes,

6 WATCH WORD: KNOWLEDGE GOVERNS IGNORANCE.

The following should be noted while presenting your report.

An example of is given below

EXAMPLE OF TITRATION REPORT

Volume of pipette used = 25.00cm3

7 WATCH WORD: KNOWLEDGE GOVERNS IGNORANCE.

Indicator used = Methyl Orange

The purpose of any acid-base titration is the determination of the equivalence

An acid base titration is a neutralization reaction in which an acid reacts with an

8 WATCH WORD: KNOWLEDGE GOVERNS IGNORANCE.

To understand the principle of titration, a good knowledge of the following is

DETECTION OF END POINT

End point is determined by the use of a compound called indicator. An

Name of Colour in acidic Colour neutral Colour in alkaline

CHOICE OF INDICATOR IN ACID BASE TITRATION

ACID BASE EXAMPLES INDICATOR

9 WATCH WORD: KNOWLEDGE GOVERNS IGNORANCE.

Weak Acid Versus Strong CH3COOH Versus NaOH Phenolpthalein

(1) MASS-MOLE RELATIONSHIP

The number mole present in a given mass is found as follows:

Dividing equation 1 by 2, we have

Number of moles = given mass/molar mass

10 WATCH WORD: KNOWLEDGE GOVERNS IGNORANCE.

Similarly, the number of particles present in a given number of moles can be

Suppose the number of particle present in n moles is N

i.e n moles = N particles -------------3

Then, 1 mole contains NA-----------------4

Dividing equation 3 by 4, we have

Number of particle = number of moles × Avogadro’s number

(2) CONCENTRATION TERMS

There are many ways in which concentration of a solution can be expressed.

(i) Mass conc.: It is the mass of a substance dissolved in 1dm3 of solution. It