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Ancient History
Indus Valley Civilization
Notes For UPSC

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) holds a prominent place in the glorious history of India. It
is also known as ‘Harappan Civilization’ as Harappa was the first city to be discovered
along the banks of river Ravi by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921. Indus Valley Civilization is one
of the most important topics for UPSC IAS Examination.
In this article on Indus Valley Civilization, we shall discuss its background, discovery,
geographical extent, important sites, various socio-political-economic and cultural
features, its town planning, various phases and its decline. This will be very useful for
aspirants in the UPSC Prelims Exam.

Also, study the NCERT Notes on Ashokan Edicts from the linked article.

Background of Indus Valley Civilization:

• IVC flourished in around 2500 BCE, in the western part of South Asia, whose
major part lies in present Pakistan & Western India.
• Indus Valley Civilization was one of the four largest ancient urban civilizations,
namely – Egypt, Mesopotamia, India & China.
Study the NCERT Notes on Rise of Mauryan Empire here.

Its Discovery:
• The Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations of the Indus
Valley in the 1920s, in which the ruins of the two oldest cities of IVC, namely
Mohenjodaro & Harappa were unearthed.
• After the discovery of Harappa by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921, John Marshall, the
Director-General of the ASI, announced that an urban civilization existed in the
Indus Valley region in around 2500 BCE.
Study the NCERT Notes on Satavahana Dynasty here.
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Geographical Extent of Indus Valley Civilization:

• Geographically, Indus Valley Civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan,
Rajasthan, Gujarat and, Western Uttar Pradesh.
• It extended from Sutkagendor (in Balochistan, Pakistan) in West to Alamgirpur
(Western UP) in the East; & from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad
(Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South.
• Some Indus Valley sites have also been found as far away as Afghanistan and
Turkmenistan.
• Also, the Pre-Harappan civilization found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan shows the first
evidence of cotton cultivation.

Study the NCERT Notes on Mauryan Administration here.

Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilization:

• This civilization had many prominent sites in both Pakistan - Harappa,
Mohenjodaro, Amri & India – Kalibangan, Lothal, Surkotada, Banawali,
Chhanhudaro, Dholavira.
• Let us study some of the sites in detail:

Few Important Sites of IVC

Site Excavated Present Location Important Findings

S. No. By
1. Harappa Daya Ram Situated on the • Sandstone
Sahini in bank of river Ravi statues of
1921 in the Human
Montgomery anatomy
district of Punjab • Granaries
(Pakistan). • Bullock carts

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2. Mohen- R.D Situated on the • Great bath

jodaro Banerjee in Bank of river • Granary
(Mound of 1922 Indus in Larkana • Bronze dancing
Dead) district of Punjab girl
(Pakistan). • Seal of
Pasupathi
Mahadeva
• Steatite statue
of beard man
• A piece of
woven cotton

3. Sutkagendor Stein in In southwestern • A trading point

1929 Balochistan between Harappa
province, Pakistan and Babylon
on Dast river

4. Chanhudaro N.G Sindh on the • Bead makers

Majumdar Indus river shop
in 1931 • The footprint of
a dog chasing a
cat

5. Amri N.G On the bank of • Antelope

Majumdar the Indus river – evidence
in 1935 Sindh, Pakistan

6. Kalibangan Ghose in Rajasthan on the • Fire altar

1953 bank of Ghaggar • Camel bone
river • Wooden plough

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7. Lothal R.Rao in Gujarat on • First manmade

1953 Bhogavo river port
near Gulf of • Dockyard
Cambay • Rice husk
• Fire altars
• Chess-playing

8. Surkotada J.P Joshi in Gujarat • Bones of horses

1964 • Beads

9. Banawali R.S Bisht Hisar district of • Beads

in 1974 Haryana • Barley
• Evidence of
both pre-
Harappan and
Harappan
culture

10. Dholavira R.S Bisht Gujarat in Rann • Water

in 1985 of Kachchh harnessing
system
• Water reservoir
• 1 IVC Site in
st

India to have
received the
‘World
Heritage Site’
Status by
UNESCO

Study the NCERT Notes on King Harshavardhana here.

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Features of the Indus Valley Civilization Society:

• IVC Society was urban in nature & was mainly divided into 3 sections à An elite
class living in the citadel region on the western part of town, middle-class
inhabitants (or rich merchants) & a relatively weaker section (labors) living in the
lower towns.
• There was a division of labor and the IVC Society was diversified and stratified.
• The people were scholars, artisans, traders, warriors, and businessmen.
• IVC Society is considered to be matriarchal in nature as a large number of
terracotta (fire-baked earthen clay) female figurines have been found from
various sites which represent the worship of the Great Mother Goddess.
• The dressing style of both men & women of Indus Valley Civilization is also
indicated from the terracotta & stone sculptures.
• Men are mostly shown wearing a dress wrapped around the lower half of the
body with one end worn over the left shoulder & under the right arm.
• Garments in Indus Valley Civilization were made from various materials like
cotton, silk, wool, etc.
• Also, the presence of woven cloth at Mohenjodaro indicates that the IVC
inhabitants were well acquainted with spinning and weaving.
Study the NCERT Notes on Chalukya Dynasty here.

Techno-Cultural Aspects of the Civilization:

• Its inhabitants mainly used copper and bronze and were unaware of the use of
iron.
• Harappans obtained copper from the Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan & Tin was
possibly brought from Afghanistan.
• Harappans were generally peace-loving and had not many arms and weapons in
their kitty.
• Several objects with ‘Textile Impressions’ have also been discovered.
• Huge brick structures found in various sites indicate that the existence of a class
of masons was there & that brick-laying was an important craft.
• IVC inhabitants also practised boat-making, bead making & seal making.
• Bead-making shops have been excavated from Chanhudaro & Lothal.
• IVC seals were mainly made of steatite which is a kind of soft stone.
• Some seals were also made of gold, ivory, chert, agate, etc & it was mainly used
for trade purposes.

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• The presence of goldsmiths was there which

made jewellery of silver, gold & precious
stones.
• Ornaments like necklaces, bracelets,
pendants, brooches have been excavated.
• IVC inhabitants also extensively used the pottery,
in which the most characteristic one was both
glossy & shiny.
• The redware pottery painted with black designs
were popular & items like jars, plates, bowls &
pots of different sizes were made from pottery.

• The people of the Indus valley civilization were

aware of Bronze mirrors, Ivory Combs, antimony rods
but not hair dyes.
• A large number of terracotta figurines and toys of
cart, bulls, elephants, monkeys, chariots, whistles
existed.

• Discovery of Bronze Dancing Girl Sculpture from Mohenjodaro, Steatite

Bearded Man from Mohenjodaro are some of the finest examples of Indus
Valley Civilization’s cultural finesse.
• The Steatite Bearded Man has an embroidered cloak over his left shoulder and his
eyes are half-closed indicating a posture of meditation.

Study the NCERT Notes on Buddhist Councils and Texts here.

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Bronze Dancing Girl Sculpture Steatite Bearded Man

Political Aspects of the Civilization:

• The evidence of political organization isn’t found and hence it can’t be concluded
which kind of political organization was followed in Indus Valley Civilization.
• Some archaeologists believe that Harappan society had no rulers, and that
everybody enjoyed equal status.
• Another theory argues that there was no single ruler, but a number of rulers
representing each of the urban centers.
• However, the uniformity in tools, weapons, bricks, seals & urban style of
construction indicates a presence of a centralized political authority.
• A class of merchants could have ruled the Indus Valley Civilization unlike in
Egypt & Mesopotamia which was ruled by the priestly class, as there is an
absence of temples in IVC sites.
• Also, the proper layout of streets, the presence of large-scale draining systems,
monumental citadels, all indicate the presence of a strong central government.
• But, no conclusive evidence is there.
Study the NCERT Notes on Ashoka - Life and Dhamma here.

Economic Aspects of the Civilization:

• Trade held a very important place in the life of IVC people which is witnessed by
the presence of numerous seals, uniform script & regulated weights & measures.
• We shall discuss the various economic aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization in
detail:

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Agriculture:

• Agriculture flourished in IVC due to timely

rains & fertile land.
• IVC inhabitants sowed many crops like rice,
wheat, cotton, barley, dates, melon, pea,
lentils, mustard, linseed, sesamum, ragi,
bajra, jowar, etc.
• Rainfed crops were pre-dominant as
irrigation was based upon the rainwater.
• In Harappa, 3 main varieties of wheat &
barley were sown.

• Wooden plough found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Granary found in Mohenjodaro

(Pakistan) & evidence of growing Barley found in Banawali (Rajasthan) all
indicate the presence of agriculture.
• The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.
• They used bulls & oxen for ploughing.
• Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in
Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sindh.

Trade and Foreign Links:

• Harappans carried on substantial trade in the form of stone, metal, shells, etc.
• Trade in Indus Valley Civilization was both inter-regional & intra-regional.
• Metal money was not used and instead, trade was carried by barter system.
• IVC inhabitants practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea & had set up
a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which helped them to trade with Central
Asia
• IVC people also had economic relations with the regions of Tigris, Euphrates &
also with Mesopotamian and Persian Civilizations.
• Evidence is provided in the Mesopotamian records which indicate trade relations
with ‘Meluha’ (Ancient name given to the Indus region) and also the presence of
trading ports called ‘Dilmun’ and ‘Makan’.
• Mesopotamians imported copper, ivory, pearls & ebony from Meluha and exported
garments, perfume, leather products & silver to IVC people.
• Harappans also did long-distance trade in lapis lazuli, which contributed to the
social prestige of the ruling class.
• Inland transport primarily employed bullock carts.

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• Possibly, Jade came from Central Asia, Turquoise came from Iran, Amethyst came
from current Maharashtra and Lapis lazuli came from Afghanistan.
• The carts and chariots were a means of transport & big boats were used for sea
trade.

Seals:

• Seals are one of the greatest artistic creations of the

Indus Valley Civilization.
• About 2000 seals have been discovered and they carry
short inscriptions with pictures of one-horned bull,
buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat, elephant, etc(excluding
horse).
• In Mohenjo-Daro, three cylindrical seals of the
Mesopotamian type have been found which depict their
trading relations.

Weights and Measures:

• IVC people used weights & measures for

trade and other transactions.
• Numerous articles used for weights have
been found which show that in weighing
mostly 16 or its multiples were used.
• Discovery of ivory scale at Lothal and
shells for measuring angles at Saurashtra
has been found.

Animal Husbandry:

• IVC people domesticated animals like a humped bull, buffalo, pigs, elephants,
donkeys, goats, sheep, etc.
• Evidence of horses has been found only at Surkotada, which is otherwise absent
from the Indus Valley Civilization.

Study the NCERT Notes on Vakataka Dynasty here.

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Religious Aspects of the Civilization:

• Unicorn is the most prominent religious figure of
Indus Valley Civilization.
• Unicorn figures had different names like
Pashupati/Proto-Shiva, Seven Mothers (Sapta-
Matrika) & Compound Creatures.
• These figurines are now largely inculcated into the
Hindu religion.

• The dominance of the terracotta mother goddess

indicates that the IVC society was mainly matriarchal.
• Evidence that Harappans looked upon the earth as a
fertility goddess and worshipped her similarly as the
Egyptians worshipped the Nile Goddess ‘Isis’.

• Proto-Shiva or Pashupati Figurine appears to be the only

male deity as depicted on the IVC Seals.
• Pashupati Figurine is surrounded by 4 wild animals,
viz., elephant, tiger, buffalo & rhinoceros.
• The Pashupati figurine wears a number of bangles, has
a headdress and there’s also an inscription of seven
letters on the top.

•IVC inhabitants also believed in the worship of stones in

the form of linga (phallus) and yoni (fertility) à Evident
from a terracotta figurine found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan).
▪ IVC people also practised yoga for both physical exercise
as well as performing religious rites.
• Presence of Sacred Ritual Spot is evident from
the excavation of Great Bath at Mohenjodaro,
wherein, all the elites undertook religious baths.
▪ Also, tree worship is evident as peepal tree has
been depicted on many IVC seals.

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• Evidence of snake worship & snake charmers is also there.

• Amulets have also been found in large numbers.
• No evidence of temples or a sophisticated caste system has been found in Indus
Valley Civilization.

Burial Practices of the Civilization:

• Dead bodies were placed in the North-South

direction and food, pottery, and other items were also
put in the grave along with the body
• Coffins containing bodies have been found in
Harappa.
• Small circular pits containing large urns and pottery
have also been found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan)

• Three forms of burial have been found at Mohenjo-Daro:

a. Complete burial – it means the burial of the whole body.
b. Fractional burial – it means the collection of some bones after the exposure of the
body to wild beasts and bird
c. Post cremation burial – cremation followed by burial of ashes.
• A triangular terracotta cake has been discovered which has a horned deity on one
side and an animal on the other side which is an indication of animal sacrifice
• At Lothal, a pair of male and female skeletons have been discovered together.
• Surkotada and Dholavira are two sites where the burial practice resembled the
megalithic practice.

Study the NCERT Notes on Persian and Greek Invasions here.

Scientific/Technological Achievements of the Indus Valley

Civilization:
• IVC can be called the ‘womb of mathematics’ from where both the concepts of
numbers & numerical systems originated.
• Harappan Numerical System is decimal-based & additive multiplicative in usage.
• The numerical system which was first used by the Harappan later found its way
into other ancient civilizations.

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• IVC inhabitants constructed the world’s first tidal port at

Lothal which indicated they had a high degree of
knowledge relating to the ebb and flow of tides
• IVC people were also versed with medical sciences as
they used many herbs & drugs to treat diseases.
• IVC inhabitants also practised ‘Trephination’ to treat
migraines and other mental disorders.

Study the NCERT Notes on Legacy and Decline of the Gupta Empire here.

Language and Script of the Indus Valley Civilization:

We don’t have a great deal of knowledge about
•
them as the Harappan Languages & Scripts haven’t been
deciphered yet.
• The style of Harappan Script was that of
Boustrophedon, that is written from right to left.
• The language was mainly pictographic & and was
engraved on seals, bones, ivory, etc.
• Harappan Script virtually disappeared by 1700 BCE
which indicates that the Indus Valley Script did not
percolate downwards.
• However, archaeologists have increasingly been
finding links between the Indus Script & Tamil-
Brahmi Script.
• In 2019, excavations carried out in the Keezhadi
site in Tamil Nadu’s Sivaganga district revealed
graffiti dating back to 580 BC which bears a
distinct resemblance to the Indus script.

Study the NCERT Notes on Indian History Timeline here.

Town Planning in the Indus Valley Civilization:

• Indus Valley Civilization is known for its extensive urban outlook and sophisticated
sense of town planning.

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• Most cities of the IVC were divided into 2 parts

à Smaller but Higher part on the Western side
called ‘Citadel’ or ‘Acropolis’ and Larger but
Shorter part on the Eastern side called the
‘Lower Town'.
• It is believed that the Citadel was possibly
occupied by the members of the ruling class as
buildings of prominence such as the Great Bath
in Mohenjodaro are located in the citadel.
• The lower town had common residential
buildings which is inhabited by the common
people.

• The use of burnt bricks was common in the

construction of houses.
• Also, the houses in the cities followed a grid
system as the city was divided
into many blocks.
• Houses were often of two or more storeys
• Each house had its own courtyard, windows
and bathrooms while some even had their own wells.
• However, no window faced the streets.

• Also, roads had cut across each other at right

angles.
• The drainage system of the Indus Valley
Civilization was also very impressive.
• The drains were made of mortar, lime &
gypsum, were slightly sloped and had
manholes at regular intervals for cleaning
purposes.

• Also, granaries have been discovered at sites

like Mohenjodaro used to store grains.

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• At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal

(Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified,
and sections within the town were also
separated by walls.

• Chanhudaro was the only Indus Valley city

without a citadel.

• IVC inhabitants are also known to have

pioneered irrigation and water harvesting
techniques
• Thus, Indus Valley Civilization people can
easily be called the best engineers of their
times.

Study the NCERT Notes on Sixteen Mahajanapadas here.

Various Phases of Indus Valley Civilization:

Early Harappan Phase From 3300 BCE to 2600 BCE:

• This phase can also be related to the Hakra Phase, which is located in the Ghaggar-
Hakra River Valley region.
• The earliest examples of the Indus Script dating back to 3000 BCE belong to this
phase.
• Presumably, this phase was characterized by a centralized authority & an
increasingly urban form of life.
• Trade networks were also established in the Early Harappan Phase itself.
• Moreover, evidence of the cultivation of various crops like peas, sesame seeds, dates,
cotton, etc also exist during this phase.

Mature Harappan Phase à From 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE:

• During this phase, which begins in 2600 BCE, the early Indus Valley Civilization
communities like Harappa & Mohenjodaro in Pakistan & Lothal in India began
turning into large urban centres
• The site of Kot Diji located in the Sindh district of Pakistan represents the transition
from the ‘Early Harappan Phase’ to the ‘Late Harappan Phase’.

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Late Harappan Phase From 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE:

• The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) started showing signs of gradual decline from
around 1800 BCE, and by 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned.
• Various reasons like external war, flood, drought, chemical reactions, etc are given
for this sudden decline of Indus Valley Civilization, which we have discussed ahead
in detail
• However, various elements that characterized the ancient Indus Valley Civilization
continued to be present in the later cultures as well.
• Moreover, contemporary archaeological data indicates the continuance of Late
Harappan Culture till 1000-900 BCE.

Study the NCERT Notes on History of Medieval India here.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization:

• This civilization declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its
demise are still debated.

• Various Theories:

1. Aryan Invasion Theory: According to this, the Aryan invasion into the Harappan
territory led to the destruction of the IVC.
2. Epidemic Theory: According to this, an uncontrollable epidemic must have
spread in the IVC cities which led to its destruction.
3. Natural Disasters Theory: According to this, a large-scale earthquake, flood or
drought would have hit the IVC cities, which led to the destruction of the Indus
Valley Civilization.
4. Less Rainfall leading to Draughts: Less rainfall due to the changing climatic
conditions would have led to draughts in the IVC cities due to which IVC declined
5. Change in the course of the river: Change in course of Ghaggar-Hakra river led
to increased aridity and subsequent destruction in the Indus Valley Civilization
cities.

• Though, India and the world marvel at the wonder of the Indus Valley Civilization,
yet this culture also could not defeat the law of nature and thus slowly declined due
to a combination of manmade and natural factors which ultimately led to the rise of
Early Vedic Tradition in India.

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Study the NCERT Notes on the North Indian Kingdoms of Medieval India here.

Contemporary Findings regarding the Indus Valley Civilization:

• A recent study conducted by Deccan College, Pune in the Kotda Bhadli
archaeological site in present-day Gujarat shows evidence of dairy products being
produced by Harappans as early as 2500 BCE.
• A study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science shows that IVC
inhabitants also consumed meat products of animals like pigs, buffaloes, goats
apart from cultivating crops.
• A recent publication has provided crucial evidence that Ancestral Dravidian
languages were possibly spoken by a significant population in the Indus Valley
civilization.
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We hope that all your doubts regarding the Indus Valley Civilization will be cleared after
going through this article. You can download the Testbook App now to check out various
other topics relevant to the UPSC IAS Exam.

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