Ancient History

Chapter-3
THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
 The history of Indian civilization begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization
(IVC), also known as Harappan Civilization.
● Timeline: 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, in contemporary Pakistan and
Western India. John Marshall estimated: 3250-2750 BC; Fairservis estimated after
radiocarbon method: 2000-1500BC; D P Agrawal estimated: 2300-1750 BC
● The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, South Asia and China.
● In 1920s, the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley
wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed.
● In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new
civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.
● Contemporary Civilisations: Egypt along Nile; Mesopotemia- Euphrates and Tigris;
China- Yellow rive and yantze Basin
● There are four important stages or phases of evolution: Pre-Harappan, Early harappan,
Mature Harappan and late Harappan.

Phases of IVC
1. Four phases of IVC are:
● Pre-Harappan Phase from 7000 to 3300 BCE:
○ This stage is located in eastern Balochistan.
○ Excavations at Mehrgarh- northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of Pre-
Harappan culture.
○ Earliest evidence of farming and herding in south Asia.
○ Shows the first evidence of cotton cultivation
○ Nomadic people began to lead settled agricultural life.
● Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE:
○ Characterised by rudimentary town planning in form of muddy structure and
elementary treat hearts and craft
○ Also related to Hakra Phase, identified with Ghaggar-Hakra valley.
○ Village settlements in plain areas; Gradual growth of towns in Indus valley.
○ Transition from rural to urban life in this period.
○ Indus script dates back to 3000 BC (This script is still undeciphered)
○ Sites of Amri and Kot diji remain evidence for this stage.
● Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE:
○ Marked by a well-developed town with a burnt brick structure established foreign
trade and crafts of various types.
○ Excavation at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban features prove this
phase of evolution.
○ Slow southward migration of south Asian monsoon allowed villages to develop by
taming floods of Indus and tributaries.

www.sunyaias.com| Joint Telegram Channel: t.me/sunyanotes50|56/3, ORN, New Delhi | (8279688595) Page. 11
 Ancient History
● Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.:
○ It was the declining phase. During which
several cities were abandoned and the
trade disappeared. A gradual decay of
significant urban Traits is noticed.
○ Reduction in rainfall triggered a
reorganisation into large urban centres.
○ Mature Harappan civilisation was ‘a
fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Kot Diji
traditions on Borders of India and
Pakistan’- According to D.A.
Lichtenstein
○ Large urban centres include: Harappa,
Ganeriwal, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira,
Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, Lothal.
○ Excavation at Lothal revealed this stage
of evolution.
○ Multiple regional cultures emerged within the area of IVC: Culture was in Punjab,
Haryana, Western UP; Jhukar culture in Sindh, Rangpur culture was in Gujarat.
○ Latest phases of Harappan culture are Pirak in Balochistan, Pakistan and Daimabad in
Maharashtra.
○ Largest late Harappan sites are Kudwala in Cholistan, Bet Dwarka in Gujarat and
Daimabad in Maharashtra
IMPORTANT SITES OF IVC
Site Excavated by Location Important Findings
● Site contains ruins of a
Bronze Age fortified city
(IVC) and then Cemetery
culture.
● Clay Brick House- mature
Harappan period.
● Sandstone statues of Human
anatomy
Situated on the bank ● Citadel and lower town
Harappa of river Ravi in
Daya Ram Sahini ● Naked bust of male priest
(UNESCO World
in 1921 Montgomery district ● Granaries
heritage site 1980) of Punjab (Pakistan).
● Bullock carts
● Virgin Goddess
● Grid planned city
● Coffin burial
● Swastik seal
● Dice
● Mirror
● Copper scale

www.sunyaias.com| Joint Telegram Channel: t.me/sunyanotes50|56/3, ORN, New Delhi | (8279688595) Page. 12
 Ancient History
● Great bath
● Granary
Mohenjodaro Situated on the Bank ● Bronze dancing girl
(Mound of Dead) R.D Banerjee in of river Indus in ● Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva
(UNESCO World 1922 Larkana district of ● Steatite statue of beard man
Heritage site in 1980) Punjab (Pakistan). ● A piece of woven cotton
● Post cremation burial
● Bronze buffalo
In south-western ● A trade point between
Balochistan province, Harappa and Babylon
Sutkagendor Stein in 1929
Pakistan on Dasht ● Port city
river ● Westernmost site
● Bead makers shop
● Footprint of a dog chasing a
N.G Majumdar in Sindh on the Indus
Chanhudaro cat
1931 river
● Only Indus City without
citadel
N.G Majumdar in On the bank of Indus ● Antelope evidence
Amri
1935 river
Rajasthan on the ● Fire altar
Kalibangan Ghose in 1953 bank of Ghaggar ● Camel bones
river ● Wooden plough
● Lothal with port founded
much later, Late-Harrapan
Phase.
● First manmade tidal port
● Manchester of Harappan
Gujarat on Bhogva civilisation
Lothal R.Rao in 1953 river near Gulf of ● Dockyard
Cambay ● Burnt bricks
● Double burial (Joint Burial)-
● Persian/ Iranian seals
● Rice husk
● Fire altars
● Chess playing
● Bones of horses
Surkotada J.P Joshi in 1964 Gujarat ● Beads
● Oval graves
● Beads
● Barley
Hisar district of
Banawali R.S Bisht in 1974 ● Evidence of both pre-
Haryana
Harappan and Harappan
culture
● Unique water harnessing
Dholavira Gujarat in Rann of
system
(UNESCO World R.S Bisht in 1985 Kachchh
● Water reservoir
heritage site in 2021) Luni river
● Largest site of well and bath

www.sunyaias.com| Joint Telegram Channel: t.me/sunyanotes50|56/3, ORN, New Delhi | (8279688595) Page. 13
 Ancient History
● Largest Harrapan inscription
used for civil purpose
● Dams
● Stadium
● Wheel made painted pottery
● Defensive walls and aligned
Kot Diji 1955-57 Indus- Sindh Pakistan streets
● Metallurgy and artistic toys
● 5 figurine of mother goddess
Rangpur S R Rao Mahar Gujarat ● Cultivation of rice
● Burying a dog with master
1955-56 rectangular mudbrick
Ropar Sutlej Punjab (India)
S S Talwar ● First site to be excavated after
independence
Chenab River ● Northen site of civilisation
1975
Manda Akhnoor ● Northernmost site
J P Joshi
(Jammu)
● Largest site of Indus valley
civilisation
Prof. Surajbhan ● Two distinct cultures of Pre
Harappa and mature Harappan
Acharya
Rakhigarhi is found here
Bhagwandev
● Related CA- Union Budget
(2020-21) has proposed to
develop Rakhigarhi village,
Haryana as an iconic site

www.sunyaias.com| Joint Telegram Channel: t.me/sunyanotes50|56/3, ORN, New Delhi | (8279688595) Page. 14
 Ancient History

Salient Features of Indus Valley Civilisation:

 The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning.
 Streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at Right Angle.
● Harappa and Mohenjodaro each had its own citadel or acropolis, which
was possibly occupied by members of the ruling class.
● Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses,
which were inhabited by the common people.
● Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on the
High podium of Mud Brick.
● The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is
that they followed the grid system.
Town Planning
and Structure ● Granaries constituted an important part of the Harappan cities.
● The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable, because in the
contemporary buildings of Egypt mainly dried bricks were used.
● Walls made of burnt bricks raised for protection indicate that floods were
an annual event.
● Absence of Stone Building is also an important characteristic of Harappan
culture.
● Laid great emphasis on sanitation.
● The Underground drainage system- [connecting all house to street
drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks] of Mohenjodaro was
very impressive.

www.sunyaias.com| Joint Telegram Channel: t.me/sunyanotes50|56/3, ORN, New Delhi | (8279688595) Page. 15
 Ancient History
● They also made man-holes at regular intervals for cleaning.
● First people in the world nto use flush toilets.
● In almost all cities every big or small house had its own courtyard and
bathroom.
● In Kalibangan many houses had their wells.
● At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement
was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls.
● Mohenjo Daro Great Bath- Public place: measuring 39 ft. Length, 23 ft.
Breadth and 8ft. Height. Along with rooms for changing clothes. [Ritual
bathing Site]
● The large tank found in Dholavira may be compared to the great bath.
● Mohenjo Daro Granary: Measuring 150ft. X 50 ft.
● No clear idea about the government of the Harappan cities.
● Systematic planning of the streets and uniformity that is seen throughout the
area of the Harappa culture in matters like size of the bricks, layout of cities,
weights and measures suggest that there existed a single centralized state rather
than a number of free republican communities
● Very few written materials have been discovered in the Indus valley and the
scholars have not been able to decipher the Indus script so far.
● No temples have been found at any Harappan sites. Therefore the possibility of
Political Life priests ruling Harappa can be eliminated.
● The excellent drainage system suggests that the municipal administration
should have been efficient
● There is no evidence of a dynastic rule of divine warlords. No palace is
identified
● Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
● If we look for a centre of power or for depictions of people in
power, archaeological records provide no immediate answers
● Social divisions: Excavation at Mohenjodaro reveals- presence of various
classes like Priests, merchants, traders, artisans, cultivators.
Commercial/Merchant class appears to be dominant.
● Hierarchy in urban habitation: Different size of houses and items in the
graves attributed to the city of Harappa, its structure evidences three distinct
localities, and the latter is true also of Kalibangan and Dholavira.
Social Life
● Food: Wheat, barley rice are important items. Animal food was eaten.
● Dress: Two garments- upper and lower; Garments were made of Cotton. Use of
wool; embroidery on clothes evident. Different fashions for dressing hair; Use
of ornaments; Beads were worn by both men and women; use of cosmetics
common. [Vanity case found at Harappa]
● Amusement: Dancing, evidence of games like chess- terracotta figurines, Dice
found at Mohenjodaro. Fishing-Hunting was another hobby.
● The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced
sufficient foodgrains.
● Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea and mustard were
Agriculture
produced. Millets are also found from sites in Gujarat. While rice uses were
relatively rare [Lothal-Paddy].
● The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.

www.sunyaias.com| Joint Telegram Channel: t.me/sunyanotes50|56/3, ORN, New Delhi | (8279688595) Page. 16
 Ancient History
● Special arrangements were made for storing grain in huge granaries.
● While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is
more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices because of
biodegradable nature.
● In Balochistan and Afghanistan, dams were raised for storing water or for
causing flood irrigation
● Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was not
only known to the people but was of prime cultural importance.
● Archaeologists extrapolate shows oxen were also used for ploughing in
some places.[Since No hoe or ploughshare has been discovered, However, at
Kalibangan, the furrows belonging to pre-Harappa phase were discovered]. So
possibly wooden ploughs were used.
● Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was
probably required for agriculture.
● Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in
Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sindh.
● Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were also reared on a
large scale.
● Evidence of the horse like animal comes from a superficial level of
Mohenjodaro and from a doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal. [The use of
horses is not yet established].
● Wild animals: mention may be made of tiger, rhinoceros, elephant and deer
● Trade and commerce
o The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by
the presence of numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights
and measures in a wide area.
o The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc.
o Imported Articles: timber, copper, gold, ivory, semi precious stones
o Main exports: Agriculture products such as Wheat, Barley, Peas, Oil seeds
and Finished products including cotton goods, Pottery, beads, Terracotta
figures and ivory products.
o Metal money was not used and trade was carried by barter system.
o They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea.
o They had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which evidently
facilitated trade with Central Asia.
Economy
o There is much evidence to prove the Indus-Sumanian Trade link.
o They also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and the
Euphrates.
o The Harappans carried on long distance trade in lapis lazuli; which may
have contributed to the social prestige of the ruling class.
● Industry
o Textile industry: The discovery of spindles and spindle whorls and a piece
of woven cotton suggests that spinning and weaving were known to the
Harappa people. Cotton and wool were used in this industry. The art of
dyeing was known to the people
o Brick industry: Huge brick structures indicate brick laying was an
important craft. Brick-Storages found at Mohenjodaro
o Metal Industry: Use of stone, copper bronze to make weapons, utensils and

www.sunyaias.com| Joint Telegram Channel: t.me/sunyanotes50|56/3, ORN, New Delhi | (8279688595) Page. 17
 Ancient History
tools. They had knowledge of making bronze by mixing tin with copper.
o Toy industry: Another important industry is toy manufacturing. Toys were
clay models of men, women, animals and wheeled carts.
o Boat making and Bead making were also prevalent.
● The Harappans were very well acquainted with the manufacturing and use of
Bronze.
● Copper was obtained from the Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan and Tin was
possibly brought from Afghanistan.
● Textile impressions have also been found on several objects.
● Huge brick structure suggest that brick-laying was an important craft. This also
attests the existence of a class of masons.
● The Harappans practised boat-making, bead making and seal-making.
● Terracotta figurine- cows, beras, monkeys and dogs.
● Dancing Girl-Bronze female figurine found at Mohenjodaro.
● Toys – Dice found at Mohenjodaro.
● Jewellery: Made of silver, gold and precious stones
● Ivory Work: ivory work is another important craft.
Art and Crafts
● Carpentry: Wooden artifacts wade by Harappan people.
● Bead making- Shell working, ceramics and glazed steatite bead making.
● Music Instruments: String instruments and drums
● The potter's wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own
characteristic pottery, which was glossy and shining.
● Seals: About 2000 seals have been found, and of these a great majority carry
short inscriptions with pictures of one horned animals called unicorns,
buffaloes, tigers, rhinoceroses, goats, elephants, antelopes, and crocodiles.
● Pottery
o The Harappa pottery consists of very fine wheel-made ware.
o Hand-made pottery was rare.
o Pottery was of different kinds—plain or painted or ware with designs.
o The household pottery was made in different shapes and sizes.
 In Harappa numerous Terracotta figurines of females are found. In one figurine
a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman.
● The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess
[Mother Goddess] and worshipped her in the same manner as the
Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess Isis.
● The male deity (referred to as proto-shiva) is represented on a seal with
three horned heads, represented in the sitting posture of a yogi. But only
one such seal has been found at Mohenjodaro.
Religion
● This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a
buffalo below his throne. At his feet appear two deer. The depicted god is
identified as Pushupati Mahadeva.
● Sun was worshiped.
● Customs of Burials were Prevalent. Three types of burrials- complete burial,
fractional burial and postcremation burial were found. At Lothal
Joint/Double burial found- Speculated as Sati evidence. [No clear evidences
of Sati]
● Pot Burials found at Lothal.

www.sunyaias.com| Joint Telegram Channel: t.me/sunyanotes50|56/3, ORN, New Delhi | (8279688595) Page. 18
 Ancient History
● Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone
have been found.
● The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and Animals.
● The most important of them is the humped bull which may be identified
with the rhinoceros and the next important was one horned unicorn.
● Linga worship was prevalent
● Use of amulets: They believed in ghosts and evil forces and use amulets as
protection against them
● It’s expected from engraved seals that happen were literate people
● Harappan script has signs between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and
the rest are variants.
● Harappan writing is pictographic and not yet Deciphered
● Some scholars concluded that Harappan Language was Dravidian, others
Harappan Script viewed it to be close to Brahmi script.
● It was written from either Right to left or boustrophedon style (alternate lines
start from opposite sides.)
● Used Ideograms (Graphic symbol or character to convey idea directly)
● Many scholars believe that they spoke some language close to Brahul (A
dialect used by Baluchi people in Balochistan Area which is a Dravidian
Language).

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still debated
between:
 Aryan Invasion: One theory claims that Indo-European tribe i.e. Aryans invaded and
conquered the IVC.
 Natural Factors: On the other hand, many scholars believe natural factors are behind the
decline of the IVC.
o The natural factors could be geological and climatic leading to floods and droughts.
o It is believed that the Indus Valley region experienced several tectonic disturbances which
causes earthquakes. This also changed the course of rivers or dried them up.
o Another natural reason might be changes in patterns of rainfall.
➔ Or it could have been due to combination of these natural and anthropogenic causes.

******

www.sunyaias.com| Joint Telegram Channel: t.me/sunyanotes50|56/3, ORN, New Delhi | (8279688595) Page. 19