1 History

Pre History and Indus Valley Civilization

Pre-Historic Period

Paleolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age Chalcolithic Age Iron Age
(30,00,000–10,000 BC) (9,000–4,000 BC) (7,000–1,000 BC) (3,500–1,000 BC) (1,000–500 BC)

Pre-Harappan Age Harappan Age Post Harappan Age

(3,500–2,500 BC) (2,500–1,750 BC) (2,000–1,000 BC)

Introduction
‰ The Indus valley civilization, also known as the Harappan civilization.
‰ The Early Harappan phase began from 3300 to 2600 BCE, the Mature Harappan phase began from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and the Late Harappan
phase began from 1900 to 1300 BCE.
‰ Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) covers the geographical extent from Sutkagendor (Balochistan) in the west to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in
the east and from Manda (Jammu Kashmir) in the north to Daimabad (Maharashtra) in the south.
‰ The Indus valley gave safe space to ancient urban civilizations like Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China.
‰ It is also known by the name of “Harappan Civilization” because one of the largest sites called Harappa was excavated first in 1921 by
Daya Ram Sahni. It is also known by the name “Bronze Age Civilization” because it took its form during the Bronze Age or the Chalcolithic
Age (3000 BC – 1000 BC)
‰ John Marshall, the first director-general of Archaeological Survey of India, announced the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization in 1924.

Important Sites of IVC

Site Excavated by Location Important Findings
Amri N.G Majumdar in 1935 On the bank of Indus river ‰ Antelope evidence
Banawali R.S Bisht in 1974 Hisar district of Haryana ‰ Beads
‰ Barley
‰ Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture
Chanhudaro N.G Majumdar in 1931 Sindh on the Indus river ‰ Bead makers shop
‰ Inkpot
‰ Foot print of a dog chasing a cat
Dholavira R.S Bisht in 1985 Gujarat in Rann of Kachchh ‰ Water harnessing system
‰ Water reservoir
Harappa Daya Ram Sahini in 1921 Situated on the bank of river ‰ Two row of 6 granaries,
Ravi in Montgomery district ‰ Workmen quarters,
of Punjab (Pakistan).
‰ 2 sandstone statues depicting human anatomy,
‰ Dog attacking dear,
‰ Little bullock carts (ekkas)
‰ Only sites which yield the evidence of coffin burial
‰ Rigveda Mention it as a Hariyupia
Kalibangan Ghose in 1953 Rajasthan on the bank of ‰ Fire altar
Ghaggar river ‰ Camel bones
‰ Wooden plough
 Site Excavated by Location Important Findings
Lothal R.Rao in 1953 Gujarat on Bhogva river near ‰ First manmade port
Gulf of Cambay ‰ Dockyard
‰ Rice husk
‰ Fire altars
Mohenjodaro R.D Banerjee in 1922 Situated on the Bank of river ‰ The great Bath,
(Mound of Indus in Larkana district of ‰ A large granary,
Dead) Punjab (Pakistan).
‰ A piece of woven cotton,
‰ Bronze dancing girl,
‰ Seal of Pashupati Mahadeva,
‰ Steatite statute of a beared man supposed to a priest,
‰ Evidence of horse for superficial level,
‰ Bronze buffalo
‰ Probable the city decline due to flooding
‰ Granary
‰ Bronze dancing girl
‰ Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva
‰ Steatite statue of beard man
‰ A piece of woven cotton
Surkotada J.P Joshi in 1964 Gujarat ‰ Bones of horses Beads
Sutkagendor Stein in 1929 In southwestern Balochistan ‰ A trade point between Harappa and Babylon
province, Pakistan on Dast
river

Vedic Period and Mahajanpads

Introduction ‰ It is said that God directly instructed Vedas to authors, i.e., they
are “Shruti”.
‰ The Vedic Age is divided into two groups: ‰ Smritis are the recollection of memories.
z The early Vedic Age (1500 – 1000 BC) ‰ Smritis are also known as Samhitas because they symbolize the
oral tradition of the Vedic age.
z The later Vedic Age (1000 – 600 BC).
‰ Shruti literature comprises the four Vedas and their Samhitas (the
Brahamanas, Upanishads and the Aranyakas).
The Vedic Literature
Vedas
‰ “Veda” is derived from the Sanskrit word “Vid”, meaning having Vedas are divided into four groups: (a) The Rig Veda, (b) The Sama
excellent or superior knowledge. Veda, (c) The Yajur Veda and the (d) The Atharva Veda.

Rig Veda Sama Veda Yajur Veda Atharva Veda

(i) Rig Veda means to praise (i) Sama Veda means melodies or (i) Yajur Veda means to (i) Atharva Veda means the tatpurusha
knowledge. chanting. worship knowledge. composition of Atharvan, an
(ii) Rig Veda contains (ii) Samaveda was composed (ii) It was composed between ancient sage and his knowledge.
10,600 verses and 1028 around 1200-800BCE. It 1100-800BCE. (ii) Atharva Veda contains 730 hymns,
hymns and is composed contains 1549 verses except (iii) Yajur Veda is divided 6000 mantras, and 20 books. It was
between 1800-1100BCE. for the 75 verses inherited into two groups; Krishna composed of 1000-800BCE.
(iii) It is divided into from the Rig Veda. (Black or dark) and (iii) The two surviving revised editions
mandalas or the ten (iii) There are two types of Shukla (white or bright). of Atharva Veda are Paippalada
books. Upanishads in Sama: (iv) The oldest portion of and the Saunakiya.
(iv) The book unravels the Chandogya Upanishad and Yajur Veda contains (iv) Very few hymns have been
world’s secrets like Kena Upanishad. about 1875 verses and is extracted from the Rig Veda, the
the origination theory, (iv) There are three revised editions mostly taken up from the rest of the hymns are unique.
lays emphasis on Gods, of SamaVeda- Kauthuma, Rigveda. (v) A person seeking benefit must
and gives tips to lead a Ranayaniya and Jaimaniya. (v) The middle portion recite the hymns from Atharva
successful and peaceful (v) The whole Veda is divided comprises Satapatha Veda as they contain magical
life. into two parts. Part I includes Brahmana. It is a type of charms and spells, or any other
(v) Hymns in the Rig Veda “Gana”, and Part II includes commentary on Shukla sorcerer can recite it on behalf of
are known as “Sukta” “Archika” Yajur Veda. someone else.

2 History
The Aranyakas ‰ “Sankhya” or the enumeration given by Kapil.
‰ These books were written in the forests, and hence they were ‰ “Yoga” or the application given by Patanjali.
also called “Forests Books”. ‰ “Purva Mimamsa” or the enquiry given by Jamini.
‰ They lay focus on spiritualism and philosophy. ‰ “Uttar Mimamsa” or the Vedanta given by Vyasa.
‰ The Indian philosophy school gained recognition from 500 BCE
The Upanishads onwards.
‰ “Upa” means near, and “sada” means to sit. Hence, Upanishads ‰ Dharma, karma, samskara, reincarnation, dukkha, meditation
means acquiring knowledge while sitting close to the teacher. and renunciation were the common themes that were discussed.
‰ Upanishads are 108 in number and were composed between ‰ Charvaka is one such school of thought where we find reference
800-500BC. to materialistic movement within the Hindu religion.
‰ The famous “Satyamev Jayate” is taken from the Mundaka
Upanishad. Smriti
‰ One of the oldest and famous Dharma Shastras is the Manusmriti.
The UpaVedas
‰ Manusmriti is considered to be the first ancient hindu constitution
‰ UpaVeda is the traditional and applied knowledge on certain in various Dharmashastras.
specific topics which are technical and practical in nature.
‰ Manusmriti is said to have been composed between 1250 BCE
‰ AyurVeda - deals with medicine. - 1000 BCE but there is a huge debate on its chronology. Manu
‰ DhanurVeda - deals with archery. is considered as the first law maker and king.
‰ GandharvaVeda - it deals with dance and music. ‰ Smritis also comprises the Dharmasutras, Arthashastra, Kavya,
‰ ShilpaVeda - deals with art and literature. Nibandhas and Bhasyas.
‰ There are Puranas which are 18 in number.
Vedangas
‰ The 18 Puranas are: Vishnu, Naradiya, Padma, Garuda, Varaha,
‰ Vedangas are also known as the “limbs of Vedas”. Bhagvata, Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Shiva, Skanda, Agni,
‰ They belong to varied categories of science and arts. Brahmanda, Brahmavaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavishya, Vamana
‰ There are a total of six Vedangas. and Brahma.
‰ These are- ‰ Puranas are like the encyclopedia of myths, legends or folktales.
z Shiksha (phonetics)
z Kalpa (rituals)
The Mahajanapadas
z Vyakaran (grammar) ‰ The period of Mahajanpadas (600 BCE) is also known as the
Period of 2nd urbanization (IVC was the 1st urbanization) as the
z Nirukta (etymology)
center of polity and economy shifted from India’s North-west
z Chhanda (metrics) to Eastern states (mainly Bihar). Urban settlement and the use
z Jyotisha (astrology) of Iron tools enabled the formation of large territories called
‰ “Nyaya” or the analysis given by Gautam. Mahajanapadas. At that time there were 16 such Mahajanapadas
‰ “Vaisheshika” or the atomic character given by Kanada. (as per Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya).

16 Mahajanapadas Capital of 16 Modern Location of Facts about 16 Mahajanapadas

Mahajanapadas 16 Mahajanapadas
Anga Champa Munger and Bhagalpur ‰ Anga Mahajanapada finds reference in the Mahabharata and
Atharva Veda
‰ During the rule of Bimbisara, it was taken over by Magadha
Empire.
‰ It is situated in present-day Bihar and West Bengal.
Magadha Girivraja, Gaya and Patna ‰ Magadha finds mention in the Atharva Veda which conveys that
Rajagriha Magadha was semi-Brahmanical habitation.
‰ It was located in present-day Bihar close to Anga, divided by
river Champa.
‰ Later, Magadha became a centre of Jainism and the first Buddhist
Council was held in Rajagriha.

Kasi Kasi Banaras ‰ It was located in Varanasi.

‰ This city got its name from rivers Varuna and Asi as cited in the
Matsya Purana.
Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad ‰ Vatsa is also known as Vamsa
‰ The capital is Kausambi.
‰ Vatsa was located around the present-day Allahabad.

History 3
16 Mahajanapadas Capital of 16 Modern Location of Facts about 16 Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas 16 Mahajanapadas
Kosala Sravasti Eastern Uttar Pradesh ‰ It was located in modern Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh.
‰ Its capital was Sravasti
Saurasena Mathura Western Uttar Pradesh ‰ This place was a centre of Krishna worship at the time of
Megasthenes. Also, there was a dominant followership of Buddha
here.
Panchala Ahichchatra and Western Uttar Pradesh ‰ Its capital for northern Panchala was Ahichchatra and Kampilaya
Kampliya for its southern regions.
‰ It was situated in present-day western Uttar Pradesh.
Kuru Indraprastha Meerut and ‰ The area around Kurukshetra was apparently the site for Kuru
Southeastern Haryana Mahajanapada.
Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur ‰ It was situated to the west of the Panchalas and south of the Kurus.
‰ The capital was at Viratanagar
‰ It is situated around present-day Jaipur.
Chedi Sothivati Jaipur ‰ This was cited in the Rigveda
‰ The capital was Sothivati.
‰ It located in the present-day Bundelkhand region.
Avanti Ujjaini or Malwa and Madhya ‰ Avanti was significant in relation to the rise of Buddhism.
Mahismati Pradesh ‰ The capital of Avanti was located at Ujjaini or Mahismati.
‰ It was situated around present-day Malwa and Madhya Pradesh.
Gandhara Taxila Rawalpindi ‰ The capital was at Taxila.
‰ Gandhara is cited in the Atharva Veda
‰ The people were highly trained in the art of war.
Kamboja Pooncha Rajori and Hajra ‰ The capital of Kamboj is Poonch.
‰ It is situated in present-day Kashmir and Hindukush.
Ashmaka or Assaka Pratisthan/ Paithan Bank of Godavari ‰ The capital of this Mahajanapada was located at Pratisthan or
Paithan.
‰ It was located on the bank of Godavari.
Vajji Vaishali Bihar ‰ It is the capital of Vajji was Vaishali.
‰ The main races residing in this Mahajanapadas were Licchavis,
Vedehans, Jnatrikas and Vajjis.
Malla Kusinara Deoria and Uttar ‰ It finds a reference in Buddhist and Jain texts and Mahabharata.
Pradesh ‰ Malla was a republic
‰ Their capital was Kusinara situated around present-day Deoria
and Uttar Pradesh.

Buddhism and Jainism

Buddha’s Life ‰ He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath. (His ancient name
Rishipattan) and First sermon became famous by the name of
‰ Buddha’s born in 563 BC (widely accepted) in a sal groove Dharma Chakrapravartan (or the turning of wheel of law).
of Lumbini garden in Kapilavastu. His mother’s name was ‰ He spent his last days near Vaishali. At Pava, a man named
Mahamaya (also called Maya). Chunda fed him pork, after eating it Buddha died of dysentery
‰ Buddha’s wife Yashodhara and his son named Rahul. at the age of 80 in 483 BC.
‰ Gautam Buddha Father’s name was Suddhodana (He was from ‰ Buddha’s death in Mahaparinirvana that is finally blowing out. In
the Sakya tribe). the outskirts of Mallas is the capital of Kushinagar. His favourite
disciple was Ananda.
‰ He was moved by the misery, which people suffered in the
world and looked for her solution. At the age of 29, he left her
home and this whole story is called Mahabhinishkraman- ‘Great
In Buddhism, the Three Jewels Are (Triratnas)
Going Forth’. ‰ Buddha (the enlightened)
‰ At Gaya in Bihar Buddha got enlightenment under the pipal tree ‰ Dhamma (doctrine)
known as Bodhi tree. As Buddha says, the soul is a myth.
‰ Sangha (order)

4 History
List of Buddhism Council
Councils Time Period Place Chairman Patron Result
Ananda composed the Suttapitaka
Sattapani caves
King Ajatasatru of (Buddha’s Teachings) and Mahakassapa
First Council 483 BC (Sattaparnaguha) Mahakassapa
Haryanka dynasty composed the Vinaypitaka
in Rajagriha.
(monastic code).
Second King Kalasoka of Major Split into Sthaviravadins
383 BC Vaishali. Sabakami
Council Sisunaga dynasty and Mahasangikas.
King Ashoka of Abhidhamma Pitaka
Third Council 250 BC Pataliputra. Mogaliputta Tissa
Maurya dynasty was composed
Fourth Kundalvana in Vasumitra and King Kanishka of Division of Buddhism into
72 AD
Council Kashmir. Ashvaghosha Kushan dynasty Hinayana and Mahayana

Jainism ‰ The Jains also follow Mahavira and his religion became Jainism,
‰ There were 24 Tirthankaras. It is the creator of Jain religion. he preached his doctrines for 30 years. He died at the age of 72
In this path Jainism provide total fearless life and that of non- at Pavapuri near Rajgir in 486 BC.
violence and to give them love and friendship. ‰ After the death of Mahavira, there was a serious famine in the
‰ The first Tirthankar was Rishabhadev, 23rd was Parshvanath and Ganges valley at the period of Chandragupta Maurya reign. This
24th was Mahavira. Actual founder of jain religion is Mahavira. famine led to the division of Jain into two sects i.e., Svetambers
Mahavir and Digambaras.

‰ Vardhamana (Mahavira) was the 24th and last Tirthankara of ‰ During the time of famine many monks under Bhadrabahu,
the Jain Religion. In 540 BC he was born in Kundagrama near moved to South alongwith Chandragupta Maurya and reached
Vaishali. Shravanabelagola in Karnataka state. They keep nudity and are
‰ His father was Siddhartha, he was the head of a famous Kshatriya called Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked).
clan, and his mother named Trishala and she is the sister of the ‰ On the other side, those who stayed back in the North were led
Lichchhavi Princess Chief Chetaka, whose daughter was wedded
by Sthulabahu and allowed wearing white garments and called
to Bimbisara.
themselves Svetambers (White-clad).
‰ Mahavira Jain left her home at the age 30 and wandered for
12 years before finally attaining Kaivalya (Enlightenment) at ‰ In Jainism, there were three Ratnas and they are called the way
Jimbhikagrama, on the banks of Rijupalika river. of Nirvana.

Haryanka Dynasty to Post Mauryan Era

6.4 The Magadha Empire

Magadha Empire

Harayanka Dynasty Shishunga Dynasty Nanda Dynasty

Bimbisara Ajatshatru Udayin Shishunga Kalasoka Mahapadma Dhana

Fig. 6.2: The Magadha Empire

‰ The Magadha word was first mentioned in Atharvaveda.

‰ Kashi, Koshala, Magadha and the Vajji confederacy—remained significant in the sixth century BC.
‰ Magadha emerged victorious and became the center of political activity in north India.
‰ Capital of Magadha: Rajgriha

History 5
6.4.1 Major Dynasties
Haryanka Dynasty (544 BC-492 BC)
Bimbisara Ajatashatru Udayin (Udayabhadra)
(542-493 BC) (492-460 BC) (460-444 BC)
‰ The first important ruler of Magadha, ‰ Ajatashatru killed his father - Bimbisara ‰ As per the Mahavamsa, the Sri Lankan
Bimbisara, was a patron of Buddhism. - and ascended the throne. Buddhist chronicle, Ajatashatru’s son
‰ He was a contemporary of both Buddha ‰ Ajatashatru was the contemporary of Udayin succeeded Ajatashatru and ruled
and Mahavira, and paid equal respect Buddha. Buddha died during his reign. for the next sixteen years.
to them. ‰ He convened the First Buddhist ‰ Founded the new capital at Pataliputra
Council at Rajgriha just after the death (modern Patna), situated at the
of Buddha in 483 BC. confluence of Ganga and Son rivers.
‰ The last ruler of the Haryanka dynasty.
‰ First king to have a standing army. ‰ Used two innovative military weapons: ‰ They were later succeeded by the
‰ Bimbisara sent his personal physician War engine (Mahashilakantaka); Chariot Sisunaga dynasty.
Jivaka to Ujjain to win the friendship of with mace (Rathamusala).
Pradyota, the king of Avanti.
Shishunaga Dynasty (412 BC-344 BC)
Shishunaga Kalasoka
‰ Shishunaga was earlier a Viceroy/Amatya (high ranking ‰ Also known as Kakarvarna (according to the Puranas).
official) at Varanasi (Banaras). ‰ Kalashoka shifted the capital back to Patliputra.
‰ During the reign of Shishunaga, Magadha annexed Avanti ‰ Convened the Second Buddhist Council held at Vaishali.
(Ujjain) and many other Janapadas into the fold of the
Magadha empire.
Nanda Dynasty (First non-Kshatriya dynasty)(344 BC-323 BC)
Mahapadma Nanda Dhana Nanda
‰ Mahapadma Nanda, who was from a shudra (non-Kshatriya) ‰ Last important king of the Nanda dynasty.
lineage, laid the foundation of the Nanda dynasty in Magadha. ‰ He is referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts.
Also called Ugrasena in Pali texts, because of his large army. ‰ Credited with the invention of Nandopakramani (a particular
‰ He is called the first historical emperor of India. measuring standard).
‰ Puranas refer to him as destroyer of all Kshatriyas i.e. ‰ He was a contemporary of Alexander of Macedon. Alexander
Sarvaksatrantaka and Ekarat. invaded North-Western India during his reign.
‰ Presence of Jain ministers like Kalpaka, Sakatala, etc. in his ‰ Finally, he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya along with
court indicates his leaning towards Jainism. Chanakya, which led to the foundations of the Mauryan Empire in
Magadha.

Chandragupta Maurya (324/321–297 BCE) history of Buddhism, Taranatha, states that one of Binduasara’s
lords, Chanakya, destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns
‰ The Mauryan dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya and made him master of all the territory between the eastern
with the assistance of Chanakya/Kautilya. and western seas.
‰ Justin, a Greek writer, says that Chandragupta Maurya overran
the whole of India with an army of 600,000. He liberated Ashoka (268–232 BCE)
northwestern India from the thraldom of Seleucus, who ruled
‰ There was a four-year succession conflict after the death of
over the area west of the Indus. In the war with the Greek viceroy,
Bindusara in 273 BCE. With the help of a minister named
Chandragupta seems to have come out victorious. Eventually,
Radhagupta and after killing 99 brothers, Ashoka (son of
there was peace between the two and in return for 500 elephants,
Bindusara) acquired the throne. Ashoka had been the Viceroy
Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area
of Taxila and Ujjain (cities that mainly handled commercial
west of Indus.
activities) during the reign of Bindusara.
Bindusara (297–273 BCE) ‰ The Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa give a detailed account of his
queens. He was married to Mahadevi (daughter of a merchant of
‰ Also known as Amitrochates (destroyer of foes) by the Greek Vidisha) who was the mother of Mahendra and Sanghamitra, the
scholars while the Mahabhasya refers to him as Amitraghata celebrated children of Ashoka who helped in the propagation of
(killer of enemies). The Ajivika sect mentions a fortune-teller who Buddhism. The Buddhist texts also mention queens Asandhimitta,
prophesied to Bindusara about his son Ashoka’s future greatness. Padmavati, Tissarakhita (who tried to cut the Bodhi tree) and
‰ Bindusara conquered the land between the Arabian sea and the Karuvaki (the only queen to be mentioned in the queens edict,
Bay of Bengal. The Tibetan monk who wrote a 17th-century where she is described as the mother of prince Tivara, the only
son of Ashoka to be mentioned by name in inscriptions).

6 History
‰ During Ashoka’s reign, the Mauryan empire covered the Stupas
whole territory from Hindukush to Bengal, and extended over
Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the whole of India including ‰ Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India from Vedic period
Kashmir and the valleys of Nepal, except a small portion in the ‰ Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular dome and a
far south, which was occupied by Cholas and Pandyas according Harmika and a Chhatra on the top.
to the rock edict 13 and by Keralaputras and Satyaputras as per
‰ Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the
the rock edict 2.
Ashokan stupas.
z He developed diplomatic relations with his contemporaries in
‰ Piprahwa stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one.
Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Cyrenaica (Libya) and Alexander
of Epirus, all these are mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka. ‰ There are several important stupas which were built by Ashoka
for example: Bharhut stupa, Sanchi stupa, Dharmarajjika stupa
z Ashoka was a great proponent of Buddhism. He converted to
at Sarnath and Taxila, Bodhgaya stupa and Bairat stupa.
Buddhism and during his reign, Buddhism went outside India.
His children Mahendra (son) and Sanghamitra (daughter) were ‰ Ashoka reign marked an important stage in the history of
sent to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) to propagate Buddhism. Buddhist stupa
z Ashoka appointed Dharma Mahamattas to propagate dharma
among various social groups including women (in the 14th Coins
year of his reign).
‰ In Arthashastra coins were called as Roop.
z During his second Dharmayatra tour (in the 21st year of his
reign), he visited Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha. ‰ Other types of coins were:
z He banned animal sacrifice, regulated the slaughter of animals z Nishaka/Suvarna – Gold coins.
for food and established dharmashalas, hospitals and sarais z Karshapan/ Dharan/ Pann – silver coin
throughout his kingdom. z Mashak/ kakini – there were copper coins.

Chanakya Central Government

‰ Teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, who was also his Chief ‰ Mauryan administration was highly centralized.
Minister. ‰ He was assisted by a Council of Ministers. It was called
‰ He was a teacher and scholar at Taxila. Other names are ‘Mantriparishad’. The ministers were called ‘Mantris.’
Vishnugupta and Kautilya. ‰ The council was headed by ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ akin
‰ He wrote Arthashastra which is a treatise on statecraft, economics, to the Prime Minister of today.
and military strategy. ‰ Tirthas: the Highest category of officials in the administration.
‰ Arthashastra was rediscovered by R Shamasastry in 1905 after There were 18 Tirthas.
it had disappeared in the 12th century. ‰ Adhyakshya: Ranked next only to Tirthas. There were 20
‰ The work contains 15 books and 180 chapters. Adhyakshyas. They had economic and military functions.
‰ Mahamattas: Higher ranking officials.
Mauryan Art and Architecture ‰ Amatyas: High ranking officials almost like present-day
secretaries. They had administrative and judicial roles.
Pillars ‰ Arthashastra mentions many Adhyakshyas for commerce,
storehouses, gold, ships, agriculture, cows, horses, city, chariots,
‰ Ashoka’s first pillar was found from Vaishali known as Koluha
mint, infantry, etc.
pillar.
‰ Yuktas: Subordinate officers responsible for the Empire’s
‰ In terms of art and architecture Sarnath pillar of Ashoka is the
revenue.
best example of it
‰ Rajjukas: Officers in charge of land measurement and boundary-
‰ Motifs associated with pillars:
fixing.
z One Lion– It appears on the pillars of Vaishali, Lauriya
‰ Sansthadhyasksha: Superintendent of mint
Nandangarh and Rampurva pillars.
‰ Samasthadhyasksha: Superintendent of markets
z Elephant– An elephant capital was found at Sankisha.
‰ Sulkaadhyaksha: Superintendent of tolls
z Bull– It was found on the Rampurva pillars.
‰ Sitaadhyaksha: Superintendent of agriculture
z Four Lions– On Sarnath and Sanchi pillars.
‰ Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships
Caves ‰ Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of iron
‰ The Mauryan period saw the beginning of rock cut cave ‰ Pauthavadhyakhsa: Superintendent of weights and measures
architecture. ‰ Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines
‰ The Barabar and Nagarjuni hills contain several caves which are ‰ Vyavharika Mahamatta: Judiciary officers
built by Ashoka and Dasharatha. ‰ Pulisanj: Public relations officers
‰ The only sculpture ornamentation is a relief carving on the
doorway of a cave known as Lomas Rishi Cave. Local Administration
‰ These caves were dedicated by Ashoka and Dashratha to the ‰ Pradeshika was the provincial governors or district magistrates.
Ajivakas. ‰ Sthanika: Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas.

History 7
‰ Durgapala: Governors of forts. ‰ The ministers of the king were known as “Amatyas”.
‰ Antapala: Governors of frontiers. ‰ The two of the most important Buddhist architecture of the period
‰ Akshapatal a: Accountant General consists of Chaitya and Viharas. Chaityas were the Buddhist
temples or assembly prayer halls. Karle Chaitya is the most
‰ Lipikaras: Scribes
famous. Viharas were monasteries or dwelling places for monks.
Decline of Mauryan Empire
The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death
The Sakas or the Indo-Scythians
of Ashoka/Asoka. One obvious reason for it was the succession (1st century Bc–58 BC)
of weak kings. Another immediate cause was the partition of the
Empire into two. Had not the partition taken place, the Greek inva- ‰ Scythians were also known as “Sakas”. Indo-Greeks
sions could have been held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to They belonged to Central Asia. They settled
re-establish some degree of their previous power. Mauryan Empire near Taxila around the 1st century BC, after Sakas
began to decline after the death of Ashoka in 232 BC. The last facing defeat from a tribe called Yueh-chi.
king was Brihadratha was assassinated by his general Pushyamitra ‰ Their empire extended upto the parts of
Vikram Era
Shunga who was a Brahmin. Mathura and Gujarat. Sakas were divided
into five different branches. These five branches of power were
The Shunga Dynasty (185 to 73 BCE) located in India and Afghanistan.
‰ Rudradaman was the famous ruler who ruled from 130 AD - 150
‰ Pushyamitra Shunga established the Shunga dynasty in north AD. Rudradaman belonged to the western Kshatrapa dynasty.
India. The kingdom included the cities of Pataliputra, Ayodhya His kingdom spread to Konkan, Narmada valley, Kathiawar,
and Vidisha. Pataliputra was their capital. parts of Gujarat and Malwa. One of the oldest inscriptions,
‰ The contemporary political power of the Shungas were the Junagarh inscription at Girnar written in Sanskrit, mentions King
Indo-Greeks or the Yavanas who was emerging power in Bactria Rudradaman. The inscription tells us that Rudradaman repaired
(Balkh). The Yavanas later captured the north western and the Sudarshan lake at Kathiawar. “Maha Kshatrapa” was the
northern parts of India. title given to him.
Around the second quarter of the 1st century BC, the last Shunga
ruler, Devabhuti was killed. The last ruler was killed by Vasudeva, The Kushanas
who then established the Kanva dynasty.
‰ The Kushanas belonged to western China.
The Kanva Dynasty (73–28 BCE) ‰ They are said to be one of the five Yuezhi tribes.
‰ The Kushanas moved to the eastward direction towards India
‰ The dynasty is also known as “Kanvayana Dynasty”. The Kanva
after defeating the Sakas and the Pahlavas in the first century AD.
dynasty was founded by Vasudeva Kanva. Vasudeva Kanva was
a minister in the court of Devabhuti, the last Shunga ruler. He ‰ Their empire extended from Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan,
killed the last Shunga ruler, Devabhuti.Vasudeva was succeeded Pakistan and north India.
by Bhumimitra. ‰ The first ruler of the empire was Kujula Kadphises.
Kanva’s were descendants of Rishi Kanva. The empire extended to ‰ Kujula Kadphises was succeeded by his son Wema Kadphises.
eastern India and central India. Vidisha was their capital.
‰ Major rulers of the period are– Kujula Kadphises
z Vasudeva Kanva
z Bhumimitra Wema Kadphises
z Narayana
z Susarman Kanishka

The Satavahanas (229–220 AD) Vashishaka

‰ Simuka founded the Satavahana dynasty. They ruled in the Huvishka and Kanishka II
Deccan and central India. The kingdom extended from river
Krishna in the south to river Godavari in the north. Pratishthana
or the modern day Paitha, near Aurangabad in Maharashtra Vasudeva I
and Amaravati were their capital. The Satavahanas arose in the
middle of the 1st century BC. Satavahanas were also known as
“Andhras”. Guptas and Post Gupta Period
‰ One of the greatest rulers of this dynasty was Gautamiputra ‰ Sri Gupta established the Gupta empire. Ghatotkacha took his
Satkarni. Gautamiputra Satkarni was also known as the “The place after him.
Lord of the West”. He extended the territories of the kingdom.
‰ They rose to prominence around the year 275 AD
He also defeated Nahapana, the Shaka ruler of western India.
‰ Around 320 AD, the Gupta empire rose to prominence in
‰ The Satvahana kingdom was divided into districts known as
Magadha, and it ruled over broad swaths of northern and southern
“aharas” or “rashtras”.
India
‰ “Grama” was the basic level of administration.
‰ They ruled for well over 200 years.

8 History
Dynastic History of the Gupta Empire – Kings
Kings of Gupta’s Facts about kings
Sri Gupta ‰ Sri Gupta started the Dynasty in the third century AD
‰ Sri Gupta ruled from 240 to 280 AD
‰ He addressed himself as ‘Maharaja
Ghatotkacha Gupta ‰ Sri Gupta was his predecessor.
‰ In addition, he was given the title of ‘Maharaja’
Chandragupta I ‰ The title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’ was bestowed upon him.
‰ He reigned from 319 until 334 AD, beginning the Gupta dynasty.
Samudra Gupta ‰ V.A Smith has dubbed him “Indian Napoleon” (Irish Indologist and Art Historian)
‰ From 335 to 380 AD, he governed. His great conquests are mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.
Chandragupta II ‰ He is credited with holding nine gems (Navratnas) at his court: Kalidas, Amarsimha, Dhanvantari, Varahminhira,
Vararuchi, Ghatakarna, Kshapanaka, Vela Bhatt, and Shanku. He ruled from 380 to 412 AD
‰ He was given the name ‘Vikramaditya’
‰ He was the Gupta Empire’s first emperor to issue silver coins.
Kumaragupta I ‰ From 413 to 455AD, he governed. Nalanda University was founded by him. Shakradaya was another name for
him. Hunas attacked India during his rule.
Skandagupta ‰ From 455 until 467AD, ruled
‰ He was a ‘Vaishnavite,’ yet he followed his forefathers’ doctrine of tolerance.
‰ Kumaragupta was his father.
Vishnugupta ‰ Vishnugupta (540–550 AD was the last King of the Gupta Dynasty.

Post Gupta Period ‰ Defeated the contemporary Tamil ruler. Pallava history assumes
a definite character from this ruler onwards.

Harshavardhana Mahendravarman (Reign: 600 AD–630 AD)

‰ Harsha, also called Harshavardhana, (born c. 590 CE – died c. ‰ Succeeded Simhavishnu who was his father.
647), was a ruler of a large empire in northern India from 606 ‰ He was a poet and composed Vichitrachita and Mahavilasa
to 647 CE. Prahasana.
‰ He was the last ruler of the Vardhana Empire, the last great empire
in ancient India before the Islamic Invasion. End of the Pallava Rule
‰ Vikramaditya Il’s attack and the temporary occupation of Kanchi
Pallavas
may be regarded as the beginning of the end of the Pallava
Introduction supremacy over South India.
‰ The Pallavas ruled south-eastern India from the 3rd through the ‰ Also, The Pandyas, the western Gangas and the Rashtrakutas
9th centuries CE. Their empire covered what is today the Tamil attacked the Pallava kingdom.
Nadu state.
‰ The Pallava rule lasted till the end of the 9th Century CE
‰ Their origin is shrouded in mystery though historians believe
their roots might have been from Andhra Pradesh state, north of z Nandivarman III (846 - 869 CE), Nripatunga (869 - 899 CE)
Tamil Nadu. The Pallavas were one of the greatest dynasties of were the other rulers.
South India. They played significant role in the political, social z Aparajitavarman (903 CE), was the last Pallava king
and cultural history of South India.
Chalaukyas
Rulers of the Pallava Empire
The Three Chalukyas
Sivaskanda Varman
‰ There were three distinct but related Chalukya dynasties.
‰ Greatest among the early rulers. Ruled at the beginning of the
‰ Badami Chalukyas: The earliest Chalukyas with their capital
4th century AD.
at Badami (Vatapi) in Karnataka. They ruled from mid-6th They
‰ Performed Ashwamedha and other Vedic sacrifices. declined after the death of their greatest king, Pulakesin II in
642 AD.
Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (Reign: 575 AD–600 AD)
‰ Eastern Chalukyas: Emerged after the death of Pulakesin II
‰ Was a Buddhist. in Eastern Deccan with capital at Vengi. They ruled till the 11th
‰ Included Sri Lanka in his kingdom. century.

History 9
‰ Western Chalukyas: Descendants of the Badami Chalukyas, ‰ Xuanzang visited his kingdom. He has praised Pulakesin II as a
they emerged in the late 10th century and ruled from Kalyani good and authoritative king.
(modern-day Basavakanlyan). ‰ Though a Hindu, he was tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
‰ He conquered almost entire south-central India.
Chalukya Rulers
‰ He is famous for stopping Northern king Harsha in his tracks
Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas. while he was trying to conquer southern parts of the country.
Pulakesin I (Reign: 543 AD – 566 AD) ‰ He had defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I but was
z Founded the empire with his capital at Vatapi. defeated and killed by Mahendravarman’s son and successor
z Performed Ashwamedha. Narasimhavarman I in a series of battles he had with the Pallavas.
Kirtivarman I (Reign: 566 AD – 597 AD) ‰ For the next 13 years, Badami remained under Pallava control.
z Son of Pulakesin I. ‰ Pulakesin II received a Persian mission as depicted in an Ajanta
cave painting. He maintained diplomatic relations with the King
z Conquered Konkan and northern Kerala.
of Persia Khusru II.
Pulakesin II (609 AD – 642 AD) ‰ His death saw a lapse in Chalukya power.
Vikramaditya I (655 AD – 680 AD)
‰ The greatest of the Chalukya kings.
‰ Extended the Chalukya rule to most parts of the Deccan. ‰ Son of Pulakesin II who plundered Kanchi, the capital of the
Pallavas.
‰ His birth name was Eraya. Information about him is obtained
Kirtivarman II (746 AD – 753 AD)
from the Aihole inscription dated 634. This poetic inscription
was written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language using ‰ Great-great-grandson of Vikramaditya I.
the Kannada script. ‰ Last of the Chalukya rulers was defeated by the Rashtrakuta
king, Dantidurga.

South Indian Empires of Anicient and Medieval history

Table Representing the Post Mauryan Empires with Their Founders and Capitals
S.no. Empire Founder Capital/s
1. The Shungas Pushyamitra Shunga Pataliputra and Vidisha was the capital of later Shunga
rulers
2. The Kanvas Vasudeva Kanva Pataliputra and Vidisha
3. The Satavahanas King Simuka Satavahana Amravati and Pratishthana
4. The Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Sakala (Sialkot in Punjab)
5. The Sakas or Indo-Scythians King Chashtana Sigal, Taxila and Mathura
6. The Indo- Parthians or Pahlavas King Gondophares Taxila and Kabul
7. The Kushanas Kujula Kadphises Bagram, Peshawar, Taxila and Mathura

Introduction to the Sangam Age tells that the city of Madurai was burnt and destroyed by the
wife of Kovalan.
‰ Sangam Age comprised the three powerful kingdoms - the
Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas. These Sangam age The Cholas
kingdoms ruled over the Tamil region of India. The Sangam age
saw a large number of Tamil poems being written. This age saw ‰ The Cholas defeated the Pallavas in the south. They rose up
poems being written on wars and love. during the 9th century and established a major empire. Their
‰ The poems were compiled in eight collections known as kingdom was called “Cholamandalam” or “Coromandel”. Their
“Ettutogai”. capital was Kaveripattnam. They are also known as “Imperial
Cholas” because they also exercised their powers in Sri Lanka
The Pandyas and the Malay peninsula.
‰ There are various temple inscriptions which tell us a lot about
‰ The Pandyas flourished under the Sangam period. Their capital their rule.
was Madurai. They ruled the southern Tamil land during the 6th
‰ The rulers were Vijayala (850 CE) → aditya (871–907 CE) →
century CE. Kalabhras were their predecessors. “Muvendars”
means the chief. There were three chief kingdoms during this Parantaka I (c. 957-973 CE).
age and Pandyas were one of them. ‰ Temple at Chidambaram. Parantaka II and Uttama Chola were
‰ Foreign travelers like Marco Polo, Ibn Batuta and Wassaff throw the successors, respectively. Rajaraja I (c.985 - 1014 CE), under
light on the political, social and cultural developments of the his reign the chola empire reached its glory.
period. Various copper plates and royal inscriptions also tell a ‰ Pandyas, Hoysalas, late Chalukyas by Yadavas and Kakaktiyas
great deal about the Pandyas rule. There is a mythology which replaced the Chola empire.

10 History
The Cheras and Bidar announced battle on Vijayanagar during the
standard of rule of Rama Raya. Ruler Rama Raya was crushed.
‰ Cheras ruled over the modern day Kerala and the Kongu region He and his kin were killed savagely. Vijayanagar was looted
of Tamil Nadu. Their capital was Vanji. Musiri and Tondi were and destroyed.
the important sea ports. Their trade was mainly maritime and they
earned good profit from this source. They traded spices, timber,
pearls and gems. “Keralaputas” or the sons of Kerela was the
Invasions in Medieval India and Delhi
title given to the Chera kings.
‰ Uthiyan Cheralathan, was the first Chera ruler. Arab Invasion
‰ Other important successors include- ‰ Al-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf (Arab governor) sent two military
z Nedunjeral Adan, also known as “Adhiraja”. expeditions against Dahar (ruler of Sindh) under the pretext
z Senguttuvan, also known as Red Chera. of acting against the pirates. But both expeditions failed. Then,
z Kudakko Ilanjeral Irumporai, the last Chera ruler. Hajjaj again sent a full-fledged army with 6,000 strong cavalry
and a large camel corps after taking the permission from the
Table Representing Sangam Age Dynasties, Their Founders, Caliph under the command of Muhammad Bin Qasim (his
Capitals, Emblems and Important Sea Ports son-in-law).
Name of Founders Capitals Emblems Important sea
the empire ports Mahmud of Ghazni
Pandyas King Madurai Carp Muziris ‰ He was considered as a hero of the Islamic people by mediaeval
Kadungon (Muchiri), Muslim historians due to his stout defence against the Central
Korkai,
Asian Turkish tribal invaders.
Kaveri
Cholas King Uraiyur, Tiger Kaveripattinam Reasons Behind the Raids of Mahmud of Ghazni
Vijayalaya Puhar
Cheras Uthiyan Vanji Bow and Musiri, Tondi ‰ To accumulate a vast amount of wealth.
Cheral Arrow ‰ To spread Islam and thus, he was also known as Shikan or
Athan destroyer of the images.

The Vijayanagar Empire (1336–1646 A.D.) The Ghurid Dynasty

‰ Harihara and Bukka are the authors of the Vijayanagar City in ‰ The Ghurids started as vassals of Ghazni but had soon freed
1336 A. D. on the southern banks of Tungabhadra themselves. The power of the Ghurids increased under Sultan
‰ They made Hampi as the capital city. Alauddin who earned the title of jahan-soz (world burner)
because during the middle of the 12th century, he ravaged
‰ They served under Veera Ballala III, the Hoysala King
Ghazni and burnt it to ground in revenge for the treatment that
‰ Vijayanagar Empire was managed by four significant had been meted out to his brothers at Ghazni.
administrations and they are:
‰ The imperialistic ambitions of Ghurids brought them in conflict
z Sangama with Khwarizmi empire, with Muizzuddin facing a disastrous
z Saluva defeat in 1203 AD, compelling them to divert their attention
z Tuluva towards India.
z Aravidu
Muhammad Ghori (1173–1206 AD)
Harihara I
‰ Muhammad Ghori or Muizzuddin Muhammad bin Sam
‰ In 1336 A. D. Harihara I turned into the leader of Sangama ascended the throne at Ghazni in 1173 AD while his elder
Dynasty brother was ruling at Ghur.
‰ He captured Mysore and Madurai. ‰ Ghori conquered Multan (1175 AD) and Uchch (in upper Sindh)
‰ In 1356 A. D. Bukka-I succeeded him from the Bhatti Rajputs and established a fort there.
‰ In 1178 AD, he attacked Gujarat but Ghori was completely
Krishnadeva Raya (1509–1529 A.D. ) routed back in the Battle of Kayadara (1178 AD) near Mount
Abu by Solanki ruler Bhima II.
‰ Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva tradition was the most well ‰ Muhammad Ghori (Ghori prince) invaded Punjab and seized
known lord of the Vijayanagar Empire Lahore in 1186 AD. Khurav Shah (last ruler of Ghaznavid
‰ As indicated by Domingo Paes, a Portuguese explorer empire) was murdered in 1192 AD. With his death the
“Krishnadeva Raya was the most dreaded and ideal lord there Ghaznavid house of Mahmud came to an end.
might actually be”. ‰ By 1190, he had conquered Peshawar, Lahore and Sialkot and
was poised for a thrust towards Delhi and the Gangetic doab.
Battle of Talikota (1565 A. D.) ‰ In 1191 AD, to conquer the whole of India, Ghori marched
‰ The replacements of Krishnadeva Raya were feeble towards Delhi and captured Sirhind. Prithviraja Chauhan
‰ The consolidated powers of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda put up a brave fight with his soldiers against Ghori in Tarain.

History 11
‰ In this first battle of Tarain, Ghori was badly injured and defeated. ‰ Aram Shah was a weak ruler. It is not clear whether he is Aibak’s
In 1192 AD, Ghori defeated Prithviraj. The ruler of Delhi was son or not. A group of nobles conspired against him and invited
ousted and Delhi was made a base for further Turkish advances Shamsuddin Iltutmish to become ruler.
into the Ganga valley. ‰ Iltutmish was Aibak’s son-in-law. He ruled the Gurid region of
First Battle of He seized the fortress of Bhatinda in 1189 northern India.
Tarain A.D. and then progressed into the kingdom of ‰ A Turkic slave born in Central Asia. IlTutmish is the greatest of the
Prithviraj Chauhan. Muhammad of Ghori slave ruler Delhi. He translated the capital from Delhi to Lahore.
(1191 A.D.)
was defeated by Prithviraj in the First Battle of ‰ Iltutmish’s forces captured Bihar in the 1210s and invaded
Tarain in 1191 A.D. and recovered Bhatinda. Bengal in 1225.
Second Battle In the second battle of Tarain, the joined forces ‰ In the first half of the 1220s, the Iltutmish ignored the Indus
of Tarain of the Rajput rulers under Prithviraj were Valley, where the Mongols, Khorezmian kings and Kabacha
(1192 A.D.) defeated by Muhammad of Ghori. Prithviraj competed. As the Mongol and Hwarezmia threats diminished,
was held as a prisoner and later put to death.The Kavacha took control of the region, but the Iltutmish invaded the
Turkish rule began for the first time in Indian territory in 1228–1229.
history with the end of The Second Battle of ‰ He defended his empire from Mongol invaders and also resisted
Tarain.Qutb- ud-din Aibak was appointed as Rajput.
the commander by Muhammad of Ghori.
‰ Prevented the invasion of Genghis Khan in 1221.
‰ Completed construction of Quwvatul-Islam Mosque and Qutub
Battle of Chandawar (1194 AD) Minar.
‰ After Tarain, Ghori returned to Ghazni leaving the conquered ‰ He built a management machine for the kingdom.
territories under his trusted slave Qutbuddin Aibak. ‰ He built a mosque, water supply and other amenities in Delhi,
‰ During the next two years, Turks overran parts of upper doab making it suitable as a center of power.
without any opposition from Gahadavalas. In 1194 AD, Ghori ‰ He presented two Sultanate silver coins, a silver tanka and a copper
returned to India again and attacked Kanauj defeating Jaichandra, jital. The Iktadari system was introduced, in which the kingdom
in the Battle of Chandawar (near Kannauj). was divided into iqtas, which were given to nobles in exchange
‰ After this invasion, Qutbuddin Aibak was made the viceroy for wages. He died in 1236 and was succeeded by his daughter,
by Ghori. Razia Sultana, as his sons did not think the work was worthwhile.
‰ Two successive battles of Tarain and battle of Chandawar laid ‰ She was born in 1205 the daughter of Iltutmish. Her father gave
the foundation of Turkish rule in north India. her a good education. She was the first and last Muslim woman
‰ Then Ghori moved to Banaras and destroyed many temples there. to rule Delhi. Also known as Razia alDin. After her father’s death
He also captured the forts of Bayana and Gwalior, which guarded and before ascending the throne in Delhi, the reign briefly passed
the southern flank of Delhi. to her half-brother Rukn uddin Firuz. However, he killed Firuz
six months after he ascended to the throne, and the nobles agreed
‰ Aibak conquered Kalinjar, Mahoba and Khajuraho from the
to place Razia on the throne.
Chandella rulers of the area.
‰ She was known as a capable and just ruler.
Slave Dynasty ‰ It is reported that her brother’s army killed her.
‰ Her brother Muisuddin Bahram Shah became her successor.
Slave dynasty was established by Qutb-ud-din-Aibak. ‰ List of Slave dynasty Rulers.
‰ Dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290 AD. Qutb ud-Din Aibak (1206-1210 AD)
‰ This was the first dynasty to rule as the Delhi Sultanate.
Aram Shah (1210-1211 AD)
‰ The dynasty ended in 1290 when Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji
overthrew the last Mamluk ruler, Muiz ud din Kaykabad. Iltutmish (1211-1236 AD)
‰ The dynasty was succeeded by the second dynasty of the Delhi Rukn-ud-din Feroze (1236 AD)
Sultanate, the Khilji (or Khalji) dynasty. Razia al-Din (1236-1240 AD)
‰ Qutb-ud-din-Aibak was the first ruler of Mamluk dynasty. Muiz-ud-din Bahram (1240-1242 AD)
‰ He was born into a Turkish family in Central Asia.
Ala-ud-din Masud (1242-1246 AD)
‰ Sold as a slave to Muhammad Gori, ruler of Gor in Afghanistan.
Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246-1266 AD)
‰ Aibak raised his ranks and became Gori’s new general and
commander. Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-1286 AD)
‰ After 1192, it was entrusted with managing the Indian land of Gori. Muiz-ud-din Muhammad Qaiqabad (1286-1290 AD)
‰ After Gori’s death, Aibak declared himself sultan of Delhi in 1206.
‰ In Delhi he began to build the Kuvvatul-Islam Mosque. It is one Khilji Dynasty
of the first Islamic monuments in northern India.
‰ He began to build Qutub Minar in Delhi. ‰ It was established by Jalal-ud- Khalji who controlled it from
1290 to 1296.
‰ He was also known as Lakh Bash (Giver of Lakhs) because of
his generosity. But he is also responsible for the destruction and ‰ The Khilji administration succeeded the Mamluk Dynasty or the
desecration of many Hindu temples. Slave line (1206-1290) that was governed by the early Turkish
‰ He reigned until his death in 1210. He is said to have been rulers like Qutbuddin Aibak, Shamsuddin Iltutmish, Raziya and
trampled on by horses. Aram Shah succeeded him. Ghiyasuddin Balban.

12 History
‰ Alauddin Khalji was the primary Delhi Sultan to leave from the Firoz Tughlaq (1351-1388 A.D.)
act of styling the king as the Caliph’s agent and to get induction
‰ In 1351A.D. Firoz Tughlaq was the child of Ghiyas-ud-noise
from him.
Tughlaq’s more youthful sibling.
‰ Alauddin Khalji’s child Qutb-ud-noise Mubarak expected the
‰ He succeeded to the lofty position.
title of Khalifa for himself.
‰ Khalji Dynasty was prevailed by the Tughlaq Dynasty. The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 A.D.)
Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316)
Khizr Khan (1414-1421 A.D.)
‰ His rule was from 1296 - 1316. He became ruler in the wake of ‰ He was the originator of Sayyid Dynasty
killing Jalaluddin. Subsequently he needed to demonstrate his ‰ He was the Governor of Multan.
lawfulness of rule among individuals ‰ He exploited the disarranged circumstance in India after Timur’s
‰ Because of the kind idea of Jalaluddin and his non-expansionist attack.
arrangements, the common rulers under the administration had ‰ In 1414 A.D., he took the lofty position of Delhi. He brought
liberated themselves. Hence it was presently significant for pieces of Surat, Dilapur, and Punjab under his influence.
Alauddin to win those regions back
‰ However, he lost Bengal, Deccan, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Khandesh
‰ At this point, Mongols had an exceptionally solid armed force and Malwa.
and an extremely forceful expansionist strategy. ‰ In 1421, Mubarak Shah, Khizr Khan’s son succeeded him.
‰ To confront these assaults by the Mongols, Alauddin required a
major armed force. Mubarak Shah (1421-1434 A.D.)
‰ Likewise to demonstrate his lawfulness, he circulated a great ‰ Mubarak Shah squashed the nearby heads of the Doab locale
deal of abundance between individuals. and the Khokhars.
‰ Gradually, he had the option to bring individuals of Delhi under ‰ He is first Sultan ruler to designate Hindu aristocrats in the
his impact. court of Delhi.
‰ He then began to grow his realm ‰ He developed “Mubarakbad” City on the banks of the waterway
Jamuna.
Tughlaq Dynasty ‰ Muhammad Shah, Mubarak’s nephew succeeded him.

Muhammad Shah (1434-1445 A.D.)

Ghiyas-ud-commotion Tughluq or Ghazi Malik
‰ He crushed the leader of Malwa with the assistance of Bahlul
(1320-1325 A.D.) Lodi the Governor of Lahore.
‰ Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq or Ghazi Malik was the author of the ‰ He deliberated Bahlul Lodi with the title Khan-I-Khanan for help
Tughluq tradition. in overcoming the leader of Malwa.
‰ Tughluq’s approach was cruel against Mongols. ‰ Later Ala-ud-din Alam succeeded him.
‰ He had killed emissaries of the Ilkhan Oljeitu and rebuffed
Mongol detainees cruelly. Ala-ud-din Alam Shah (1445-1457 A.D.)
‰ He likewise began development of Tughlaqabad Fort. ‰ He was not a solid ruler.
‰ During his rule, Tughlaq fabricated a steady organization ‰ Ala-ud-din Alam Shah was eliminated from the high position by
overwhelmed by Multanis, which mirrors his local power base of Bahlul Lodi in 1457 A.D. by Bahlul Lodi who was the Governor
Dipalpur and Punjab, and the implies that he used to take power. of Lahore.
‰ He rose from an unassuming beginning. ‰ Delhi was caught by him and he was shipped off Badaun.

Muhammad-Bin Tughlaq (1325-1361A.D.) Lodi Dynasty (1451 to 1526)

‰ In 1325 A.D. Junakhan, the crown ruler sworn the title
Muhammad-Bin Tughluq. Muhammad-Bin Tughlaq represented Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489 A.D.)
the managerial and political solidarity of India. In 1327 A.D. he ‰ Bahlul Lodi was the originator of the Lodi Dynasty. Sultanate
caught Warangal. Period finished with the Lodi Dynasty. Gwalior, Samthal, Sakit,
‰ To fill the unfilled depository, he increased government rates in Mewat was vanquished by Bahlul Lodi. He passed on in 1489 A.D.
the Doab area.
‰ He moved his capital from Delhi to Devagiri to safeguard his
Sikandar Shahi (1489-1517 A.D.)
capital and requested the ordinary citizens and government ‰ Sikandar Shahi was the son of Bahlul Lodi.
authorities to move to Devagiri, after numerous troubles he ‰ He swore the title Sikandar Shah and climbed the privileged position.
requested them to get back to Delhi. ‰ He set up an efficient government operative framework.
‰ He presented the copper cash framework. ‰ He created horticulture and industry.
‰ The worth of coins dropped; subsequently he needed to pull out ‰ He put serious limitations on the Hindus.
the copper token cash. ‰ Sikandar Shah appreciated “Shehnai” Music.
‰ The downfall of the Delhi Sultanate is asserted because of his ‰ A work on music named “Lahjati-Sikandar Shahi” was made
hurried choices and deficient approach execution. during his rule.
History 13
 Mughals Mughal Military Campaigns
‰ Babur, the first Mughal emperor (1526- 1530), succeeded to
Introduction the throne of Ferghana in 1494 when he was only 12 years
old. He was forced to leave his ancestral throne due to the
‰ The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers. invasion of another Mongol group, the Uzbegs. After years of
From their mother’s side they were descendants of Genghis wandering he seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526 he defeated the
Khan (died 1227), ruler of the Mongol tribes, China and Central Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat and captured Delhi
Asia. From their father’s side they were the successors of Timur and Agra.
(died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq an modern-day Turkey.

Mughal emperors-Major campaigns and events

Emperor Year Campaign
Babur 1526 ‰ Defeated Ibrahim Lodi and his Afghan supporters at Panipat.
1526-1530 1527 ‰ Defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies at Khanua.
1528 ‰ Defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi; Established control over Agra and Delhi before his death
Humayun 1539-1540 ‰ Humayun divided his inheritance according to the will of his father. His brothers were each given
1530-1540, 1555 a province.The ambitions of his brother Mirza Kamran weakened Humayun’s cause against
1555-1556 Afghan competitors. Sher Khan defeated Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540), forcing
him to flee to Iran
‰ In Iran Humayun received help from the Safavid Shah. He recaptured Delhi in 1555 but died
the next year after an accident in his building.
Akbar 1556-1570 ‰ Akbar became independent of the regent Bairam Khan and other members of his domestic staff.
1556-1605 1570-1585 Military campaigns were launched against the Suris and other Afghans, against the neighbouring
1585-1605 kingdoms of Malwa and Gondwana, and to suppress the revolt of his half-brother Mirza Hakim
and the Uzbegs. In 1568 the Sisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and in 1569 Ranthambhor.
‰ Military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal and
Orissa. These campaigns were complicated by the 1579-1580 revolt in support of Mirza Hakim.
‰ Expansion of Akbar’s empire. Campaigns were launched in the north-west. Qandahar was seized from
the Safavids, Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul, after the death of Mirza Hakim. Campaigns in the Deccan
started and Berar, Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were annexed. In the last years of his reign Akbar
was distracted by the rebellion of Prince Salim, the future Emperor Jahangir.

Jahangir 1605-1627 ‰ Military campaigns started by Akbar continued. The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh,
1605-1627 accepted Mughal service. Less successful campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and
Ahmadnagar followed. Prince Khurram, the future Emperor Shah Jahan, rebelled in the last years
of his reign. The efforts of Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s wife, to marginalise him were unsuccessful.

Shah Jahan 1631 ‰ Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan under Shah Jahan. The Afghan noble Khan Jahan
1627-1658 1632 Lodi rebelled and was defeated. Campaigns were launched against Ahmadnagar; the Bundelas
1657-1658 were defeated and Orchha seized. In the north-west, the campaign to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs
was unsuccessful and Qandahar was lost to the Safavids.
‰ Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the Bijapur forces sued for peace.
‰ There was conflict over succession amongst Shah Jahan’s sons. Aurangzeb was victorious and
his three brothers, including Dara Shukoh, were killed. Shah Jahan was imprisoned for the rest
of his life in Agra.
Aurangzeb 1663-1680 ‰ In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663, but rebelled again in the 1680s. Campaigns in
1658-1707 1685-1698 the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs were temporarily successful. Mughal intervention
in the succession and internal politics of the Rathor Rajputs of Marwar led to their rebellion.
Campaigns against the Maratha chieftain Shivaji were initially successful. But Aurangzeb insulted
Shivaji who escaped from Agra, declared himself an independent king and resumed his campaigns
against the Mughals. Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangzeb and received support from the
Marathas and the Deccan Sultanate. He finally fled to Safavid Iran.
‰ After Akbar’s rebellion Aurangzeb sent armies against the Deccan Sultanates. Bijapur was
annexed in 1685 and Golconda in 1687. From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns
in the Deccan against the Marathas who started guerrilla warfare. Aurangzeb also had to face the
rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis, in the north-east of the Ahoms and in
the Deccan of the Marathas. His death was followed by a succession conflict amongst his sons.

14 History
Books written during Mughal Empires (indicating feudal society). He described Mughal emperors as
kings of beggars and barbarians.
and Travellers
‰ Peter Mundy: He was a Britisher, who visited India during the
rule of Shah Jahan. He talked about famines and revolts against
Title Written By Context the king. He also visited Gujarat and Deccan.
Tuzuk E Babur About the Reign of Babur, ‰ Niccolao Manucci: He was an Italian doctor who worked in
Babari Techniques used by armed the artillery of Dara Shikoh. He wrote a book called Storia Do
forces and ruling system. Mogor (Story of Mughals). He permanently settled in India and
died and buried here.
Akbar Nama Abu'l-Fazl ibn History at the time of Akbar.
Mubarak Shah Jahan
Tuzuk E Mohammad History at the time of ‰ The style and alteration of the Jahangir time frame were seen at
Zahangir Khan Zahangir. the hour of Shah Jahan moreover.
Alamagir Munsi Miraz About the ruling system of ‰ The subjects were melodic gatherings, sweethearts on patios and
Nama Muhammad Aurangazeeb. nurseries, monks assembled around a fire, and so forth.
Kazin
Decline of the Mughal Empire
Humayun Gulbadan About the ruling system
Nama Begum during the reign of ‰ The rising European colonial powers were also a burden. These
Humayun. European powers were financially, politically and militarily
strong.
Tarikh E Abul Fazal About the Reign of Akbar.
‰ Further, involvement in the Battle of Buxar gradually ended
Akbari
their rule.
Badshah Nama Abdul Hamid About the Reign of Shah
Zahan.
Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs and
Shahzahan Muhammad About the Reign of Shah
Nama Salih Zahan. Contemperory Empires of Medieval
Shahzahanama Inayat Khan About the Reign of Shah and Modern India
Zahan.
Tahqiq-i-Hind Al-Biruni Al-biruni was a Persian Tripartite Struggle
Scholar, wrote this book
Tahqiq-i-hind. He travelled ‰ The period from 750 - 1000 CE saw the rise of three important
to South Asia in 1017 and empires: Gurjara-Pratihara (Western India), Palas (Eastern
authored a study of Indian India) and Rashtrakutas (Deccan).
culture. persian traveller, ‰ The conflict among these three powers (basically for control
who wrotes about Das
over Kannauj area of Ganga valley) is often described as a
Emperor.
tripartite struggle.
Tarikh-i-Firoz Shams Siraj Afif History of Tughlaq ‰ Kannauj was strategically and commercially very important.
Shahi It was located on the Ganga trade route and was connected
Fatah Ziauddin About the reign of Tughlak to the Silk route. Previously, Kannauj was the capital of
Zahandari Emperor. Harshavardhana Empire.
‰ Out of these three, the Rashtrakutas emerged as the most
Khamsa Amir Abu Al- Literature and poetries.
Qasim Firdausi. powerful and their empire lasted for the most time.
‰ Rashrakutas also acted as the bridge between north and
Shahnameh Abu Al-Qasim About the reign period of south India in economic and cultural arenas.
Firdausi. Mohammad Ghazni.
Aaina-e- Amir Khusrau Best book of Literature. The Four Agnikula Rajput Clans were:
Sikandari ‰ The Pratiharas
‰ The Chahamanas/Chauhans of Ajmer.
Foreign Travellers during Mughal Period ‰ The Chandellas of Bundelkhand.
‰ Ralph Fitch: He was the first Britisher to visit India during ‰ The Paramaras of Malwa.
Akbar’s period. He talked about miserable conditions of common
man. Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (Western India)
‰ Tavernier: He was a French diamond trader, who visited (730-1036 AD)
India 6 times during Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb reign.
He visited Golconda and gave information about Qutb Shahis ‰ Known as Gurjara-Pratihara, as they originated from Gurjaras,
also. who were primarily pastoralists and fighters.
‰ Francois Bernier: He was a French doctor, who worked in the ‰ Dynasty was founded by Harichandra, in and around Jodhpur,
military of Shah Jahan. He said there was no middle class in India south western Rajasthan.

History 15
‰ Pratihara were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving known as Shambhu Raje. He expanded the empire by defeating
east of the Indus River. the Portuguese and Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore. This
‰ Gurjara-Pratihara are known for their sculptures, carved panels expansion feared Aurangzeb and he led an expedition against
and open pavilion style temples. the Marathas. Shambhu Raje fought Aurangzeb gallantly and
‰ The greatest development of their style of temple building was never lost a battle. In 1689, Shambhu Raje was finally captured
at Khajuraho - UNESCO World Heritage Site. and executed by the Mughal troops. Aurangzeb captured the
capital of Raigad.
‰ Sanskrit Poet & Dramatist Rajasekhara lived in the court of
Mahendrapala I – son of Mihir Bhoja. ‰ Rajaram was crowned as the next “Chhatrapati” in 1690.
‰ Finally in 11th century CE, they were wiped off from the Chhatrapati Rajaram escaped after facing continued attacks
political map by the Ghaznavids and their rule was succeeded from Aurangzeb. He fled to Berar. He died in Sinhagad in
by Chahamanas or Chauhans in Rajputana, Chalukyas 1700. After his death, his widowed wife Tarabai led the
or Solankis in Gujarat and the Paramaras or Pawars in rule. She led the Maratha forces in the battlefield against the
Malwa. Mughal army.
‰ Foreign traveller Al-Masudi had visited the Pratihara empire. ‰ In 1707, Shambhaji’s son, Shahu was released from prison by
the Mughals.
Rise of Marathas and Shivaji Maharaj ‰ The Maratha-Mughal conflict put a heavy burden on the Mughal
treasury which led to its weakening.
‰ The Maratha Empire, which started as a minor monarchy in
western India, had Raigad as its capital. Shivaji Maharaj, a Shivaji (1674–1680)
Maratha warrior nobleman born in 1627, established the Maratha
Empire. He began a military campaign against the Mughal
Empire, which at the time ruled India, in 1674. Shivaji’s military Sambhaji (1681–1689)
accomplishments quickly made him a threat to the Mughals,
and the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb eventually caught and Rajaram (1690–1700)
imprisoned him. By leading Marathas in battle against the Sultan
of Bijapur, the renowned Maratha Chief Shivaji Maharaj founded
a Hindavi-Swarajya (Adil Shahi Dynasty). Tarabai (1700–1707)
‰ In 1674, Shivaji received the title of Chatrapati, or Sovereign.
‰ Sambhaji, one of Shivaji’s sons, was captured and killed by Balaji Vishwanath
Aurangzeb’s army in the Deccan, while Shahu was taken (1713-1720)
prisoner.
‰ Shahu was freed by Bahadur Shah I in 1707, and the Marathas
swiftly took control of the region. Peshwa Baji Rao I
‰ Kolhapur and Satara became independent states. Later, the (1720-1740)
position of prime minister, or peshwa, was established.
‰ The development of the Maratha was significantly influenced Balaji Baji Rao
by Balaji and his forefathers. Their sphere of influence extended (1740-1761)
to Bengal in the east, Peshawar in the north, and Tamil Nadu
in the south.
Baji Rao II
Rise and Fall of the Marathas (1674-1818) (1795-1818)
‰ In the 17th century, Marathas were controlling a large part of the
Indian subcontinent. Decline of the Marathas
‰ The empire began with Chattarapati Shivaji Maharaj in 1674. ‰ The Third Battle of Panipat put heavy pressure on the Maratha
‰ The empire ended with Peshwa Bajirao II in 1818. military and treasury. They also had to face the British East India
‰ Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj led a series of battles against the Company. Many great leaders were lost in the battle.
Bijapur Sultanate and the Mughal empire. ‰ The Marathas were subdivided within one administrative unit.
‰ Various people fought against Shivaji like Prince Muazzam, They had various chiefs. This division led to a lack of unity
Mirza Raja Jai Singh, Shaista Khan all fought against Shivaji within themselves. Their revenue administration grew weak.
and failed. He followed the principle of “Hindawi Swarajaya”. Their revenue depended mostly on the collection of Chauth and
With the help of this principle, he formed an independent Maratha Sardeshmukhi.
kingdom.
‰ The Maratha military also grew weak.
‰ Raigad was the capital of the now independent Maratha
kingdom and Shivaji assumed the title “Chhatrapati” in the ‰ Their diplomacy was weak and they were not far sighted. They
year 1674. could not sense their enemy’s next move. The signing of Treaty
of Bassein also caused a significant downfall in the Maratha
‰ Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj died in 1680. His eldest son,
power.
Sambhaji, ascended the throne in 1681. Sambhaji was also

16 History
 Table representing maratha wars.
Raid of Mahmud Ghazni on Kannauj;
Their time period and the treaties signed Rajyapala fled from the battlefield.
Time Took the title Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta
Maratha
S.No. period of Treaties signed (Great King of Kings of Northern India). His
Wars Rajyapala
the Wars court was adorned by Rajashekhar, who
(960-1018 AD) was an eminent Sanskrit poet, dramatist and
1. First Anglo 1775-1782 1. Treaty of Surat, 1775
critic who wrote: Karpuramanjari, Kavya
Maratha War 2. Treaty of Purandar, 1776 Mimansa, Vidya Salabhanjika, Bhrinjika,
3. Treaty of Salbai, 1782 Bala Ramayana, Prapanch Pandav,
2. Second Anglo 1803-1805 1. Treaty of Surji- Balabharathi, Bhusan Kosh.
Maratha War Anjangaon, 1803 Yashpal Last ruler of this dynasty
2. Treaty of Deogaon, 1803 (1024-1036 By 1090 CE, the Gadhavalas conquered
3. Treaty of Rajghat, 1805 AD) Kannauj.
3. Third Anglo 1817-1818 1. Treaty of Gwalior, 1817
Maratha War 2. Treaty of Mandsaur, 1818 Sikhism
Important Rulers The Ten Gurus in Sikhism
Most famous Pratiharas kings, known for The Ten Sikh Gurus – Lineage Chart
Nagabhata-I
containing Arab armies Guru Nanak (1469 to 1539)
(730-760 AD)
Defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
Guru Angad (1504 to 1552)
Made Kannauj in western U.P as his capital.
Expansionist policy brought him into Guru Amar Das (1479 to 1574)
conflict with Dharmapala, the Pala king Guru Ram Das (1534 to 1581)
Vatsaraja and Rashtrakuta king Dhruv, thus began
“tripartite struggle” and continued for about Guru Arjan (1563 to 1606)
(780- 805 AD) another 350 years.
Guru Hargobind (1595 to 1644)
Vatsraja defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala
and Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta king, for Guru Har Rai (1630 to 1661)
control of Kannauj.
Guru Harkishan (1656 to 1664)
He conquered Kannauj and the Indo-
Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from the Palas, Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621 to 1675)
Nagabhata-II and again checked the Muslims in the west.
Guru Gobind Singh (1666 to 1708)
(805–833 AD) He rebuilt the Shiva temple at Somnath in
Gujarat, which had been demolished in an
Arab raid from Sindh. Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Founder of the Sikh
Greatest ruler of Pratiharas, got victories Empire of Punjab
over Palas and Rashtrakutas.
Proved to be the most successful and popular ‰ Maharaja Ranjit Singh, renowned as the Lion of the Punjab or
ruler of Pratiharas. Sher-e-Punjab was born on November 13, 1780, in Gujranwala,
Bhoja-I/ (now in Pakistan). The great ruler and great warrior was the
Mihira Bhoja Capital at Kannauj, which is also known as
Mahodaya. founder of the Sikh kingdom of Punjab.
(836-885 AD) ‰ Ranjit Singh was reported to be blind in one eye. He was the only
Devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of
‘Adivaraha.’ child of Maha Singh, and after his father’s death, he became the
Shukerchakias’ chief at the age of 12 which was a Sikh group.
He was called King Baura by another Arab
Gujranwala town and the surrounding villages, now in Pakistan,
traveller, Al-Masudi.
were part of the legacy.
Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala
‰ In 1799, he conquered Lahore, Punjab’s capital (now the capital
I, the Pratihara empire reached its peak of
of Punjab province, Pakistan). The Afghan king, Zamn Shah,
Mahendrapala prosperity and power.
acknowledged Ranjit Singh as the city’s administrator, but Ranjit
(885-910 AD) The Rashtrakuta king Krishna III invaded Singh declared himself Maharaja of Punjab in 1801.
north India in about 963 CE and defeated the
Pratihara ruler.

History 17
 European Invasions and Expansion of East India Company
Table Representing Wars Fought By The British, The Time Period of The Wars, The Participants of The Wars,
Causes of The Wars and The Outcomes of The Wars (Between 1757- 1849)
Wars Time
S.No. Participants In the War Causes of the War Outcomes of the War
Fought Period
1. Battle of Plassey 1757 1. Siraj-ud-Daulah and Siraj-ud-Daulah was replaced by Mir 1. The war was won by
his French allies. Jafar. the Company.
+ 2. The British won over
their natural allies, the
2. East India Company French.
led by Robert Clive 3. This was the first
step towards British
Expansion in India
2. Battle of Buxar 1764 1. Mir Qasim, Shuja- The British were not happy by the new 1. This battle of buxar
ud-Daulah and Shah reforms that Mir Qasim made. was won by the
Alam II British.
+ 2. This win granted the
2. The British Company complete
supremacy in Bengal.
3. Treaty of Allahabad
signed, 1765.
3. First Anglo- 1767- 1. Haider Ali 1. Haider Ali had a strong army and 1. Treaty of Madras was
Mysore war 1769 + had captured many significant signed in 1769.
areas.
2. The British, the
Nizam of Hyderabad 2. He allied with the French (Battle
and the Marathas of Chengam was fought)

4. Second Anglo- 1780- 1. Haider Ali, later his The British refused to follow the guide- Treaty of Mangalore was
Mysore war 1784 son Tipu Sultan, lines mentioned in the Treaty of Madras. signed in 1784.
the Nizam and the (Battle of Pollilur and Battle of Porto
Marathas.
Novo)
+
2. The British
5. Third Anglo- 1790- 1. Tipu Sultan and his 1. The British formed good relations Treaty of Seringapatam was
Mysore war 1792 French allies with the Nizam of Hyderabad and signed in 1792.
+ Marathas.
2. The British 2. Tipu Sultan took help from the
French to strengthen their military.
3. Tipu Sultan refused to free
English prisoners as was agreed in
the Treaty of Mangalore.
6. Fourth Anglo- 1799 1. Tipu Sultan 1. Tipu Sultan did not agree with the 1. Tipu Sultan was
Mysore war + Subsidiary Alliance system. defeated.
2. The Nizam of 2. Tipu allied with the French. 2. The captured areas
Hyderabad and 3. Treaty of Seringapatam was a of Tipu Sultan were
Marathas and the failure. divided between the
English British and the Nizam
of Hyderabad.
3. Mysore was now
under the Subsidiary
Alliance system.
7. First Anglo- 1775- 1. The Marathas led by 1. Britishers were interfering in the 1. Treaty of Surat was
Maratha war 1782 Majadi Scindia internal affairs of the Marathas. signed in 1775.
+ 2. The Maratha power was growing 2. Treaty of Salbai was
2. The British and the Britishers wanted to curb it. signed in 1782.

18 History
 Wars Time
S.No. Participants In the War Causes of the War Outcomes of the War
Fought Period
8. Second Anglo- 1803- 1. The Marathas 1. Peshwa Baji Rao II was defeated 1. Treaty of Bassein was
Maratha war 1805 (Scindias, Holkars by the Holkars. signed in 1802.
and Bhonsle) 2. Peshwa Baji Rao II accepted 2. Treaty of Deogaon
+ British protection after signing the was signed in 1803.
2. The British Treaty of Bassein in 1802. 3. Treaty of Surji-
Arjangaon was signed
in 1803.
4. Treaty of Rajpurghat
was signed in 1805.
9. Third Anglo- 1817- 1. The Marathas 1. Marathas wanted to rebuild their 1. Treaty of Gwalior was
Maratha war 1818 (Peshwa Bajirao II, old power. signed in 1817.
Malharrao Holkar and 2. Marathas were unhappy with 2. Treaty of Mandsaur
Mudhoji II Bhonsle) the British interference in their was signed in 1818.
+ internal matters.
2. The British 3. The three of the important Maratha
chiefs united against the British.
10. First Anglo-Sikh 1845- 1. The Sikh 1. Raja Ranjit Singh had died in 1. Treaty of Lahore was
war 1846 + 1839 which led to chaos and signed in 1846.
confusion within the territory.
2. The British
2. There was political instability.
11. Second Anglo- 1849 1. The Sikh 1. British interference in their internal 1. The son and wife of
Sikh war + matters with the help of residents. Ranjit singh were
2. Mulraj, the Governor of Multan pensioned off to
2. The British England.
rebelled against the Governor
General, Lord Dalhousie. 2. Kohinoor diamond
was taken away by
3. to recover the humiliation faced in
the British.
the First Anglo Sikh war.

Portuguese (1498) Francis – De – Almeida (1505-1509)

‰ Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): between Portugal and Spain, ‰ The first Portuguese governor in India made Cochin his
divided non-Christian world by an imaginary line in the
headquarters, initiated the “Blue water policy” (cartaze system)
Atlantic : east for Portugal and west for Spain.
- to be powerful at the sea instead of building fortresses on
‰ Religious Policy of the Portuguese: Initially, hostile only
Indian land.
towards Muslims, later towards Hindus also. In 1579 missionaries
were sent to convert the emperor Akbar to Christianity.
‰ Portuguese were the first to come to India and the last to leave
Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509- 1515)
India. ‰ Considered as Founder of the Portuguese power in India:
Bartholomeu Dias, a portuguese explorer was successful captured Goa from Bijapur; persecuted Muslims; captured
in ailing to the Cape of Good Hope (Africa) in 1488, but Bhatkal from Sri Krishna Deva Rai (1510) of Vijayanagara.
couldn’t reach India. ‰ Initiated the policy of marrying with the natives of India and
cartaz system.
Vasco-da-Gama Cartaz system: Naval trade license or pass issued by
‰ Reached Calicut via the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 and was Portuguese in the Indian ocean, to establish their strong
warmly welcomed by Zamorin (Ruler of Calicut). hold in Indian Ocean.
‰ By 1502, Vasco’s second visit led to the establishment of ‰ Banned the practice of sati in his area of influence.
trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore and their ‰ Albuquerque died in 1515 leaving the Portuguese as the
fortification. strongest Naval power in India.
‰ Portugal, unlike other traders, wanted to monopolize trade in
India. Nino da Cunha (1529-38)
‰ Shifted the capital from Cochin to Goa in 1530. Goa became
Pedro Alvarez Cabral the capital of Portuguese settlements in India.
‰ Established first factory at Calicut in 1500. ‰ During his rule, Diu and Bassein came under the Portuguese
‰ Embarked the era of European rule on the Indian subcontinent. occupation from Gujarat King Bahadur Shah in 1534.

History 19
‰ Pragmatic leader who expanded territory beyond Western Founded their first factory in Masulipatnam in Andhra (1605).
coastal region. Portuguese power expanded to eastern coast
during his time. ‰ Pulicat was their main center in India (in 1608), later replaced
by Nagapattinam (in 1609).
Factors Responsible for Decline of the British and Dutch Treaty (1667): Dutch withdrew their
claim from India and British from Indonesia.
Portuguese in India
‰ Dutch monopolised the trade in black pepper and spices (Spice
‰ Emergence of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia and North Islands of Indonesia).
India. Indian commodities traded by Dutch: Silk, cotton, indigo,
‰ Emergence of Marathas. rice and opium.
‰ Political fears aroused by the activities of Jesuit missionaries, and ‰ Decline in India: Defeat of the Dutch in the Anglo-Dutch
hatred of persecution that caused reaction against Portuguese rivalry and the shifting of Dutch attention towards the Malay
spiritual pressure;
Archipelago. In the Battle of Bedara (1759), the English defeated
‰ Rise of the English and Dutch commercial ambitions. the Dutch.
‰ Rampant corruption, greed and selfishness along with piracy Dutch factories India (both Eastern and western
and clandestine trade practices of the Portuguese. Coasts): Masulipatnam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat
‰ Diversion of Portuguese colonizing ambitions towards the West (1616), Bimlipatnam (1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsurah
due to the discovery of Brazil. (1653), Cossimbazar (Kasimbazar), Baranagore, Patna,
Balasore, Nagapattinam (1658) and Cochin (1663).
The English (1600)
‰ A group of English merchants calling themselves the Merchant Danes (Denmark) (1616)
Adventurers formed a company.
‰ December 31, 1600: Charter was issued by Queen Elizabeth I ‰ Danish East India Company was established in 1616
of England which gave trade monopoly for 15 years. In to the ‰ Founded a factory at Tranquebar near Tanjore, on the eastern
company, which was extended in May 1609. coast of India.
‰ The English East India Company was established in 1600. ‰ Principal settlement was at Serampore near Calcutta.
‰ Captain Hawkins of England arrived at royal court of Jahangir ‰ Danes are better known for their missionary activities than
(in 1609) seeking permission to establish England trade center for commerce.
at Surat, but was refused due to Portuguese pressure. Dutch issued gold coins depicting image of Lord Ven
‰ With Captain Thomas Best’s victory over Portuguese est. first kateswara from Pulicat mint and established mints at
factory in Surat. Cochin, Masulipatnam, Nagapatam, Pondicherry and
‰ Later in 1613, Jahangir issued a Farman (permission letter) to Pulicat.
English (Sir Thomas Roe) to establish their trade center in Agra,
Ahmedabad and Bharuch. Hence the British established their French (1664)
1st trading factory at Surat in 1613.
‰ During the reign of Louis XIV, the king’s famous minister
‰ In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James
Colbert laid the foundation of the Compagnie des Indes
1 (King of England) & obtained permission from Jahangir to Orientales (French East India Company) in 1664.
settle English trading factories in different parts of India
‰ Established their first factory at Surat by Francis Caron
‰ English established their second factory at Masulipatam in 1616.
Francois Martin founded Pondicherry in 1668 & became
‰ ‘Golden Farman’: Issued to English company by the them by first governor of Pondicherry. Henceforth, Pondicherry
the Sultan of Golconda in 1632. became headquarter of French possessions in India.
‰ Bombay’s Control: Charles II received Bombay as dowry Pondicherry was nerve centre of French power in India.
from the Portuguese in 1662. Gerand Aungier - Founder of
‰ In the beginning of 18th century, English & French were
Bombay (1669).
competing for their supremacy in India, Mainly in the Carnatic
‰ Madras: Fort St. George replaced Masulipatnam as the & Bengal region.
headquarters of the English settlements in south India.
‰ French were more interested in establishing factories in the
‰ Presidency towns of English: Bombay, Madras & Calcutta. coastal region. They made Karaikal (Pondicherry), Balasore
(Orissa) and Qasim Bazar (Bengal) as their major trading
Dutch (Netherlands) (1602) centres.
‰ Saista Khan (Subedar of Bengal) allowed French to build a
‰ Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutchman to reach Sumatra
factory near Chandernagore in 1674.
and Bantam in 1596.
‰ French Governor Joseph Francois Dupleix established French
‰ Dutch were not much interested in empire building in India; their
supremacy in India. He captured Madras in 1746 which was
concerns were trade.
restored to English in 1748. He was the First European to get
‰ United East India Company of the Netherlands, formed in involve in the quarrel/internal rivalries of Indian princes.
March 1602 by the Charter of Dutch Parliament, had the powers
to wage wars, make treaties and build forts.
20 History
 ‰ Their aim was one and this one aim created unity among a
Anglo French Wars
diverse nation.
First Carnatic War (1744-48): Extension of rivalry, ended in ‰ This fire of unity made the Indians realize their desire for
1748 by treaty of Aix-La Chapelle
citizenship and for a single nation.
Second Carnatic War (1749-54): Inconclusive, undermined the ‰ Economic reforms made by the British affected people on the
French and English power in south India
same levels.
Third Carnatic War or Battle of Wandiwash (1758-63): ‰ The 19th century reform movements which were social and
Decisive war was won by the British in 1760; treaty of Paris
religious also enlightened people about nationalism.
(1763) – French were allowed to use Indian settlements for
commercial purposes only and fortification of settlements were ‰ These social and religious reform movements imparted
banned. knowledge of love, unity and brotherhood.
‰ Various great leaders like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Swami
‰ After 3 Carnatic wars, finally French were crushed & limited
Dayanand Saraswati, Aurobindo Ghosh, Swami Vivekanada
to Pondicherry.
spoke about the spiritual aspect of nationalism.
‰ Songs like “Vande Matram” were coined to express love towards
Social and Religious Movements the country.
‰ “Vande Matram” Later became the voice for every Indian
Meaning of Renaissance nationalist.

‰ Renaissance means rebirth or revival; in the Indian sense it, The Two Phases of Indian Renaissance
however, means introduction to science and technology, new
discoveries and new thoughts. The First Phase of Indian Renaissance
‰ Renaissance in India was a new concept and led India to an ‰ The first phase of Indian Renaissance consisted mostly of socio
anti-colonial struggle. -religious movements.
‰ Indian literature like the Vedas, Upanishads, Epics and other ‰ It comprised the middle class Indian people who were literate
scriptures were brought forward again. in British liberalism.
‰ Indians wanted a better world for themselves without the ‰ The phase consisted mostly of looking into the past and learning
intervention of the British. from it and assessing the present traditional strength and unity
‰ It is said that “Nationalism” is a natural outcome of the among the Indians to fight against the British.
Renaissance. ‰ Traditional problems like abolishing sati, widow remarriage, etc.,
‰ This awakening or rebirth led India to a path which demanded was put up to solve modern problems.
freedom in all sense. ‰ The first phase dealt mainly with social and religious reforms.
‰ Political reform did not play a major role here.
Relationship Between Renaissance and
Nationalism The Second Phase of the Indian Renaissance
‰ The second phase dealt with political reforms.
‰ Various great emperors like Ashoka, Samudragupta, Chandragupta ‰ The anti-colonial politics was merged with a view towards
Maurya and medieval time emperors from Akbar to Aurangzeb modernism.
ruled the country.
‰ The Indian Renaissance was inspired by anti-colonial politics.
‰ Until the 19th century, the concept of national identity was not
‰ The national movements adopted some of the ideologies of the
known to the Indians.
first phase of renaissance.
‰ In the 19th century, people became more conscious towards
‰ The movements, however, kept away the social struggles from
creating a national identity by means of social, economic, cultural politics.
and political factors.

Table Representing 19th Century Socio-Religious Reform Movements

S. No. Reform Movements Features
1. Brahmo Samaj 1. The Brahmo Samaj was founded in 1828 by Raja Rammohan Roy.
2. Belief in one god.
3. The samaj was against idol worship, caste oppression, polytheism, sacrifices and priest domination.
4. The Samaj focused more on meditation and reading and understanding of the religious scriptures.
5. Evil social pratices like sati, child marriage, polygamy, puradh system were condemned.
6. Widow remarriage and women’s education were encouraged.
7. The samaj believed in the unity of all religions.
8. Various eminent leaders like Debnandranth Tagore were members of the samaj.
9. Later the Brahma sabha was divided into two - Brahmo samaj and Adi Brahmo Samaj.
10. The society also condemned superstitious beliefs.

History 21
S. No. Reform Movements Features
2. Arya Samaj 1. The Arya Samaj was founded in 1875 by Dayanand Saraswati.
2. Belief in One God.
3. The Samaj was against idol worship.
4. The samaj was also against the high positions held by the priestly classes.
5. Casteism was also not motivated.
6. Dayanand Saraswati believed that casteism was the main reason behind lower classes’ conversion
into other religions.
7. The samaj was also against untouchability.
8. Caste dilution was appreciated.
9. Stress was on equal rights for all.
10. Various great leaders like V D Savarkar and Bhagat Singh were inspired by these ideologies.
3. Theosophical Society 1. Theosophical society was founded in 1875 by Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Col. H.S. Olcott.
2. In India, Annie Besant is famous in society.
3. The success was mainly achieved in the fields of education.
4. Establishment of Central Hindu University in 1898.
5. Belief in Hinduism spiritualism philosophy.
6. Belief in the doctrine of Karma.
7. Advocated brotherhood irrespective of caste, gender, race, color or religion.
8. Amalgamation of Hindu philosophy with western philosophy.
9. Translation and publication of Hindu literature.
10. Infusing sense of national pride.
4. Ramakrishna Mission 1. Ramakrishna mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1892.
2. The mission aimed to spread messages of Swami Vivekananda’s guru Ramakrishna Paramhansa.
3. The mission was against casteism.
4. The mission was against untouchability.
5. Promoted the philosophy of Vedanta.
6. Focus on unity of all religions.
7. The mission also works towards the education and culture sector.
8. The mission believes in karma yoga.
9. The mission also works towards tribal welfare.
10. The mission also works towards rural development.
5. Satyashodhak Samaj 1. Satyashodhak Samaj was founded by Jyotirao Govindrao Phule in 1873.
2. Abolition of idol worship.
3. Abolition of casteism.
4. Condemned the priesthood dominance within Hinduism.
5. Was against the oppressions suffered by Dalits.
6. Belief in One God.
7. Emphasized on meditation and prayers rather than rituals.
8. Education should be for all without any differentiation.
9. Laid importance on home made goods (domestic manufactured goods).
10. Jyotirao Phule gave birth to the term “Dalit”.
6. Young Bengal 1. Young Bengal Movement was founded by Henry Vivian Derozio in 1820.
Movement 2. Critical thinking was the aim.
3. Criticized the orthodox Hindu practices.
4. Encouraged free thought without any restrictions.
5. Ideas of liberty, equality and freedom were spread.
6. Motivated and supported womens’ education.
7. Did not believe in God.
8. Condemned societal norms.
9. Debates on history, science, philosophy, literature.
10. Criticized social evil practices like sati, child marriage, etc.
7. Aligarh Movement 1. Aligarh Movement was founded by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan in the 1860s.
2. Laid importance on modern scientific knowledge for the Muslims.
3. Focused on learning the English language.
4. Condemned the social myths, superstitions and customs of the then society.
5. Aligarh Muslim University was founded in 1875.
6. Looked after the upliftment of the Muslims in the society.
7. The movement also criticized the rigid orthodoxy.
8. Encouraged adoption of pragmatism.
9. Laid importance on interfaith understanding.
10. Aligarh Muslim University led a renaissnace within Indian Muslims.

22 History
 S. No. Reform Movements Features
8. Widow Remarriage 1. Vishnu Shastri Pandit and Mahadev Ranade Govind established the association in 1861.
Association 2. Encouraged widow remarriage.
3. The association was against child marriages.
4. It was against high spendings on marriages.
5. Also against various social customs like shaving of the head.

9. Deoband Movement 1. Deoband Movement was founded by Muhammad Qasim Nanawatawi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi
in 1867.
2. Believed in Islam with two important points - Shariat and Tariqah.
3. Sufism was accepted.
4. The Quran, hadith, qiyas and ijma were the groundwork of religion.
5. These four can be understood only with the help of a ulema.
6. Acceptance of Sufism also reduced various religious ceremonies.
7. Was an anti-British movement.
8. Aimed at educating Muslims.
9. Aimed at lifting Muslims.
10. Believed in the peaceful co-existence of Hindu and Muslims.

Revolt of 1857 ‰ Various kingdoms like Satara, Jaipur, Jhansi, Udaipur, Nagpur,
Sambalpur and Baghat were annexed by the policy of Doctrine
of Lapse.
Introduction ‰ Punjab, Sikkim were annexed due to wars and treaties.
‰ The Pax Britannica policy was also one of the major reasons.
‰ The Subsidiary Alliance policy helped Britishers in gaining a
vast amount of territories.
Military Causes
‰ Economic exploitation of the common Indians helped Britishers
in filling up their bellies. ‰ In 1806, Vellore Mutiny Muslim sepoys resisted against the
‰ Various basic level positions like - peasants, traders, pandits, shaving off their beard.
maulviies and other high positions like rulers, zamindars were ‰ In 1824, Barrackpore Cantonment sepoys were forced to cross
severely affected from the British exploitation policies. the seas which was against their faith.
‰ Hindu and Muslim religions on the basis of honour, life and ‰ In 1856, under Lord Canning’s rule, the General Service
property were affected which helped them in uniting against Enlistment Act was introduced which claimed that all the future
the British. recruits in the army would have to march whenever ordered.
‰ Mutinies, zamindars, peasants, tribes, traders, pandits, maulviies, ‰ The Post Office Act, 1854 also put a ban on free posts made by
etc. rose up in revolt. the Indian sepoys.
‰ Various regional kingdoms were unhappy with the Doctrine of ‰ In 1856, the British government introduced rifles.
Lapse policy. ‰ The loading process of the rifle involved bringing the cartridge
‰ Together, the harmed group of India (that is mostly the whole to the mouth and tearing off the top paper of the cartridge with
country) rose up in revolt against the British. the mouth.
‰ In 1857, news spread that the cartridge involved grease of the
Causes of The Revolt fat of cow and pig.
‰ Many historians believe that the greased cartridges incident was ‰ Cow is considered sacred by the Hindus and pig is not consumed
what led to the revolt of 1857. by the Muslims.
‰ The resentment had started right from the Battle of Plassey.
The Beginning of the Revolt in Different Parts
‰ Until the event when people could not take any longer and Mangal
Pandey murdered a British officer. of the Country
‰ The Mangal Pandey incident motivated many and they all decided
to throw away the British empire. Meerut
‰ The revolt of 1857 is also known as the First War of Independence. ‰ The sepoys at Meerut refused to use the greased cartridge.
‰ Various different causes like political, social, religious and ‰ On 10th May, a revolt broke out and sepoys shot their officers,
economic causes led to the rise of the revolt. released those who were taken as prisoners and moved towards Delhi.

Political Causes Delhi

‰ The Annexation policy through a treacherous policy of Doctrine ‰ Delhi was once again captured by the rebels on 11th May, 1857.
of lapse and administration style like Dual administration or the ‰ The Red Fort was taken back.
Subsidiary Alliance provoked the rulers. ‰ Bahadur Shah II was declared as a natural leader for the revolt.

History 23
General Bakht Khan Uprisings and Contemperory
‰ The mutiny in Bareilly was led by General Bakht Khan.
‰ General Bakht Khan fled Delhi when Delhi was reoccupied by Movements (1800–1910)
the rebels.
‰ He joined the forces from Lucknow and Shahjahanpur. Rise of Peasant Organisations
‰ In 1859, General Bakht Khan was wounded and died.
‰ Between 1920 and 1940. Farmers’ organizations emerged.
‰ Delhi was recaptured again by the British and Bahadur Shah II
‰ The first organizations were Kisan Sabha (1929) in Bihar
was arrested and sent off to Rangoon.
Province and All India Kisan Sabha (AICS) in 1936.
Lucknow ‰ In 1936, All India Kisan Sabha was formed at the Lucknow
‰ Begum Hazrat Mahal was the leader here. session of Parliament with Sahajanand as first chairman.
‰ Her son, Birjis Qadir, was declared as the Nawab.
19th Peasant Movements (Pre-Gandhian
Kanpur Phase)
‰ Nana Saheb, was the adopted son of Baji Rao II and he was the
leader in Kanpur.
‰ Nana Sahib had his experienced lieutenant, Tantia Tope with him. Indigo Rebellion (1859-62)
‰ Nana Saheb escaped the field after the revolt was suppressed ‰ To increase profits, European farmers persuaded farmers to plant
by the British. indigo plants instead of food crops.
‰ Tantia Tope fled and joined Rani Jhansi. ‰ A low price was offered for growing indigo.
‰ Farmers suffered at the hands of merchants and brokers. As
Jhansi
a result, they started a movement to stop growing indigo in
‰ Rani Laxmibai was the leader here. Bengal.
‰ She was fighting against the policy of the Doctrine of Lapse.
‰ The government appointed an indigo commission and in
‰ Rani Jhansi and Tantia Tope moved towards Gwalior.
November 1860 issued an ordinance making it illegal to force
‰ Gwalior was captured by the British and Rani Jhansi died
the cultivation of indigo in ryots. This meant a peasant victory.
fighting.
‰ Tantia Tope was handed over to the British and hanged. Pabna Movement (1870s-80s)
Bareilly ‰ In many parts of East Bengal, landlords have forced rent and land
‰ Khan Bahadur was fighting against the British. taxes to be collected, often higher for poor farmers.
‰ After the British captured most of the Rohilkhand area, he was ‰ Farmers were also prohibited from obtaining settlement rights
reduced to a pensioner. under Act X of 1859.
‰ In May 1873, the Agricultural League was formed at Yusufshahi
Bihar
Pargana in the Pavna Region of Patna (East Bengal).
‰ Kunwar Singh was from Jagdishpur and was the leader of the
revolt in Bihar. ‰ Landlords’ strikes were organized and funded, and fighting spread
‰ He fought gallantly against the British. to Patna and other parts of East Bengal.
‰ The struggle was supported by the Indian Association under
Why Was the Revolt of 1857 a Failure? the leadership of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C. Dutt and
Surendranath Banerjee.
‰ The revolt was not organized properly.
‰ Other regional rulers like Sindhia, Holkar, Rana of Jodhpur and Deccan Riots (1875)
many others did not support the rebellion.
‰ The Deccan Peasant Uprising was primarily against the atrocities
‰ Britishers had advanced arms and weapons. of the Marwari and Gujarati usurers.
‰ There was no strong leader.
‰ Ryotwari was heavily taxed under the Ryotwari system. In 1867,
‰ There was no fixed plan or any devised scheme on how to fail land income also increased by 50%.
the British.
‰ The government succeeded in suppressing the movement. As a
‰ The revolt in some areas was curbed before it could take the
reconciliation measure, the Deccan Peasant Assistance Act of
shape of a war.
1879 was passed.

24 History
 British Indian Administration, Policies, Acts and Viceroys and Governors
and Wars (1700–1857)
Table representing governor generals of India in order of succession and their significance (from 1757 to 1857)

S. No. Name of the Governor General Significance

1. Robert Clive Battle of Plassey
(1757-1760 and 1765-1767) Battle of Buxar
Dual Administration in Bengal
2. Warren Hastings Ended the Dual Administration in Bengal
(1772-1785) The first governor general of Bengal after the Regulating Act of 1773
Ijardari system of revenue introduced.
Put a ban on dastaks.
Established Diwani Adalat and Faujdari Adalat in 1772.
Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were established.
War against Rohillas in 1774.
Due to his great interest, the Calcutta Madrasa and The Royal Asiatic society was founded.
3. Lord Cornwallis Forbidden bribe.
(1786-1793) Laid the foundation for Indian Civil Services.
Revenue districts were reduced in the Bengal presidency.
Provincial courts were established in Dacca, Patna, Calcutta and Murshidabad.
Permanent Settlement or the Zamindari was introduced in 1793.
4. Lord Wellesley Subsidiary Alliance system was introduced.
(1798-1805) Mysore wars were fought.
Maratha wars were fought.
Policy of Expansion
5. Lord Hastings Imposed British Paramountcy in the country.
(1813-1823) Anglo-Nepalese war (1814-1816)
Third Anglo-Maratha war (1817-1818)
The Ryotwari and Mahalwari system was introduced.
Encouraged towards development of vernacular schools.
Encouraged freedom of the press.
6. William Bentinck Abolished Sati.
(1828-1835) Abolished Infanticide.
Regulation No. XVII, 1829 established.
Suppression of Thugs.
English was introduced.
The famous Lord Macaulay speech.
Liberal policies towards the press.
Abolished the provincial courts of appeal and circuit courts.
Did not interfere in internal matters of Indian states.
He was the most popular governor general.

History 25
 S. No. Name of the Governor General Significance
7. Lord Dalhousie Greatest governor generals of India.
(1848-1856) Followed the policy of expansion through wars.
Policy of Doctrine of Lapse.
Abolished titles and pensions.
Second Anglo Sikh War
Annexation of Oudh, 1856.
Widow Remarriage Act, 1855.
Non-Regulation system introduced.
Religious Disability Act, 1850.
Wood’s Despatch. 1854.
First railway line between Bombay and Thane, 1853.
Post Office Act, 1854.
Responsible for the 1857 revolt.
8. Lord Canning Last Governor General of India.
(1856-1858) Government of India Act, 1858 passed.
First Viceroy of India.
Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
Established three universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
Established Archaeological Survey of India.
Issued Queen’s Proclamation at Allahabad Durbar, 1858.

Land Revenue Systems in British India ‰ Ownership has been transferred to the farmer.
‰ Tax rates are also too high in this system.
There were three main land revenue collection systems in India. ‰ The Mahalwari system has many regulations for both the
These are Permanent, Ryotwari and Mahalwari. Zamindari system and the Ryotwari system.

Ryotwari System Permanent Settlement

‰ The Ryotwari system has been introduced in 1820 by Thomas Munro ‰ Introduced in 1793 by Sir Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar Odisha,
‰ This was South India’s main land import system. Benaras and Northern Madras. Sir John Shore planned this
‰ The main areas of introduction are Madras, Bombay, Assam and settlement.
parts of Kurg in British India. ‰ He said to the caller as the landowner. So, in the 10/11 revenue
‰ In the Ryotwari system, property rights were transferred to collected by the British, the British receive a fixed sharing, while
farmers. The British government collected taxes directly from they can preserve the 1/11 revenue that they collected themselves.
the farmers. ‰ Zamindars were free to set their rates. Many of the zamindar,
‰ The income of the Ryotwari system was 50% on dry land and confident in their wealth, remained in the city and exploited
60% on irrigated land. their tenants.
‰ The land was owned by farmers, but they became poor because of ‰ A system was introduced to ensure the income of British colonial
excessive taxes. In addition, tax rates have been raised frequently. powers, where Zamindar was declared the owner of land subject
to fixed tax payments to the British government.
Mahalwari System
‰ Farmers have changed into rental farmers and deprived the land
‰ The Mahalwari system was introduced in 1822 Holt Mccenzi. name, including other rights, and lost privileges used during the
Later, the system was reformed during William Bentka (1833). Mobile period.
‰ It was the district’s import system in north India. ‰ Zamindars collected land rents through various intermediary
‰ It was introduced to the Central region, North Western Border, collectors.
Agra, Punjab, Gangetic Valley, and more, including British India. ‰ Farmers have been deprived of their share of the produce of the
‰ In this system, the land was divided into Mahal. Each Mahal is land and placed in extreme poverty. This import system accounted
made up of one or more villages. for 57% of the country’s arable land.
‰ The entire village (the Mahal) was treated as a single tax ‰ While investigating the causes of the Great Bengal Famine of
collection unit. 1943, the Commission recommended that the British government
‰ Responsibility for collecting tax was left to the mayor or village abolish land brokers.
committee.
26 History
Taluqdari System Regulating Act, 1773
‰ In the Oudh region there was another system known as the
Talukdari system. ‰ First step taken by the British Government to control and
regulate the affairs of the East India Company in India.
‰ The government signed a 30-year pact with Talukdar.
‰ Recognised, for the first time, the political and administrative
‰ Talukdar collected stipulated income from several villages
functions of the Company.
under his control, deducted the cost of collecting income and his
remuneration for labor, and deposited it with the government. ‰ Laid the foundations of central administration in India.
‰ Unlike the Bengal Jamindar, Oudh Talukdar had no substantive ‰ Changed the post of Governor of Bengal as the ‘Governor-
rights to land under its jurisdiction. Moreover, they worked as General of Bengal’ and created an Executive Council of four
tax collectors for fixed settlement periods rather than indefinitely. members to assist him.
Lord Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General
British East India Company: Major Events of Bengal.
1600 East India Company established. ‰ Governors of Bombay and Madras presidencies came under
1609 William Hawkins arrived at Jahangir’s court. the subordination to the Governor General of Bengal, unlike
earlier, when the three presidencies were independent of one
1611 Captain Middleton obtained permission of the Mughal
another.
governor of Surat to trade there.
‰ Provision for the establishment of a Supreme Court or
1613 A permanent factory of East India Company Imperial Court at Calcutta (1774) was laid out. SC was
established at Surat. composed of one chief justice and three other judges.
1615 Sir Thomas Roe, ambassador of King James I, ‰ Prohibited the engagement of the servants of the Company
arrived at Jahangir’s court. By 1618, the ambassador in any private trade or accepting presents or bribes from the
succeeds in obtaining two Farman confirming free natives.
trade with exemption from inland tolls.
‰ Act demands the Court of Directors (governing body of the
1616 Company establishing its first factory in the south in Company) to report on its revenue, civil, and military affairs in
Masulipatnam. India, thus strengthening the control of the British Government
1632 Company getting the Golden Farman from the over the Company.
Sultan of Golconda ensuring safety and prosperity of
their trade. Indian National Congress:
1633 Company establishing its first factory in east India
in Hariharpur, Balasore (Odisha).
Formations, Sessions, Pacts
1639 Company getting the lease of Madras from a local and Commitees
king.
1651 Company given permission to trade at Hooghly Formation of Congress
(Bengal).
1662 British King, Charles II, given Bombay as dowry ‰ The Indian National Union was founded in 1884 by A.O. Hume,
for marrying a Portuguese princess (Catherine of an Englishman and retired civil servant, Hume convened a
Braganza). meeting at Poona in December 1885 with several national leaders.
‰ The location has been moved to Bombay for several reasons
1667 Aurangzeb granting the English a Farman for trade
especially in Pune due to the epidemic.
in Bengal.
‰ The Indian National Coalition was later renamed the Indian
1717 Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar issued a Farman, National Congress.
called Magna Carta of the Company, giving the
‰ The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in
Company a large number of trade concessions.
Bombay and it was attended by Bannerjee and 72 delegations
1744-63 Carnatic wars from all over India.
1757 Battle of Plassey.
1764
Recommendations of the Nehru Reports
Battle of Buxar

Treaty of Allahabad (1765) Responses

‰ The sovereign status of India within the Commonwealth.
‰ Robert Clive signed a treaty with Shuja ud din and the Mughal ‰ Fundamental Rights (19) including right to vote for men and
Emperor Shah Alam II. women above 21 years.
‰ First Treaty of Allahabad: Shuja ud din surrendered Allahabad ‰ Similar rights of men and women as citizens.
to the emperor Shah Alam II. He gave the zamindar full
‰ State would be secular.
possession of the estate.
‰ No seperate electorate, reserved constituncies, and reservations
‰ Second Treaty of Allahabad: Shah Alam II in Allahabad under
for minorities. It provided a seat for Muslims in the central and
company’s protection. He issued a Farmaan which gave Diwani
provincial areas that were non-Bengali and Punjabi minorities.
rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to EIC. Provision of Nizamat
Likewise, NWFP has provided reservations for non-Muslims.
functions were also granted to the company.

History 27
‰ A form of the federal government with a strong/powerful center. ‰ The subject division given by the Government of India Act of
There would be a bicameral legislature. 1919 has been amended and supplemented by several subjects
‰ The constitutions head of the India could be the Governor by this Act of 1935 and three lists have been included these are:
General. He will be appointed by the British monarch. z Federal list 59 Subjects (Central)
‰ It was suggested to establish a Supreme Court. z Provincial list 54 Subjects (Provincial)
‰ Provinces were generally based on linguistic principles. z Concurrent list 36 Subjects (Both)
‰ The national language would be Devanagari (Sanskrit/Hindi), ‰ Consequently, this act gave both federal and state legislatures the
Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Bengali, Marathi, or in Gujarati. Use power to make laws on specific subjects. In case of disagreement,
of English was also permitted. Federal Law takes precedence.
‰ To resolve this conflict, the Constitution authorizes the Governor-
Round Table Conference General to grant discretionary powers to legislate unlisted issues
in centres or states.
First Round Table Conference (November
1930-January 1931) Cripps Mission
‰ For the first time, the British and Indians were considered as equals. ‰ The Cripps Mission was sent by the British government to India
‰ Participants-58 Political leaders from British India, 16 delegates in March 1942 to obtain Indian cooperation for the British war
from princely states, 16 delegates from political parties. efforts in the 2nd World War.
‰ Indians national Congress boycotted it. ‰ This mission was led by Stafford Cripps. The Seal King
‰ Demands-Constitution for provinces, federal system of government, accompanied him. There were other members of the State
executive responsibility to the legislative, B.R. Ambedkar Council, including the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
demanded separate electorate for backward classes or untouchables.
‰ The Purpose of Cripps Mission Proposals of Cripps Mission
‰ Results-Congress continued Civil Disobedience Movement.
‰ Creation of Indian domination. This Dominion has the right to
Second Round Table Conference (September remain inside or outside the Commonwealth. They are also free
1931-December 1931) to participate in international organizations.
‰ The Constituent Assembly is formed to draft a new constitution
‰ Participants of second round table conference were: Mahatma
Gandhi, British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald, Indian for the country. Members of this council are elected by local
national Congress and 31 Indian delegates. councils and also appoint monarchs.
‰ Result–It failed due to the communal representation. Gandhi ‰ Any state that does not wish to join Indian rule may form a
agreed upon Poona‑Pact with the Ambedkar after the failure of separate confederation and have a separate constitution.
Round Table Conferences and reservation of seats for depressed ‰ The transfer of power and rights of minorities are guaranteed
classes was provided in the legislative instead of separate through negotiations between the Constituent Assembly and the
electorate for depressed classes.. British Government.
Third Round Table Conference CR formula (Rajaji Formula 1944)
(November‑December 1932)
‰ It was not attended by Indian National Congress and Gandhi ‰ During World War II, the British government under Sir
Labour Party from British also refused to join it. Linlithgow’s governor declared that the Indian National Congress
‰ The result of this conference was government of India Act 1935, (INC) and the Muslim League would have to resolve the
establishing provincial autonomy and also a Federal system, that differences before the move to the Indian state would be possible.
was not implemented.
Proposals of CR formula
The Government of India Act (1935) - Key ‰ The Muslim League will work with the INC to demand
independence from Britain.
Provisions
‰ Both sides work together to form an interim government centrally.
‰ After the war, the Commission will be tasked with delimiting
All India Federation Muslim-majority territories and holding referendums in territories
‰ The law established the All India Federation, including both where all residents (Muslims and non-Muslims) based on adult
British Indian provinces and Indian countries. The Entry Tool suffrage will vote to organize. Whether it is an independent
represents a condition that the status can join in the federation. sovereign state or not.
‰ According to this Act, India has decided to join the 50% Indian ‰ Splits require joint agreements to protect defense, communications
provinces. However, because the number of needs does not and trade.
combine this is not implemented, the provisions of the federation
‰ The above conditions would only come in effect if the UK
have not been implemented
transfers all rights to India.
Division of Subjects
‰ The formation of a federation and access to the exercise of
Wavell Plan
provincial autonomy paved the way for the division of the subject Wavell plan came in 1945.
between the center and the provinces. Proposals of Wavell Plan

28 History
‰ All members of the Executive Committee, except the Governor- Early Movements of Gandhiji
General and the Commander-in-Chief, were required to be
Indians. ‰ M K Gandhi returned from South Africa (where he had lived for
‰ Must represent caste Hindus and Muslims equally. more than 20 years) to India in 1915.
‰ The reconstructed council was to function as a provisional ‰ There he had led a peaceful agitation against the discrimination
government under the Act of 1935 (ie, it had no responsibility meted out to Indians and had emerged as a respected leader.
to the Central Parliament). ‰ It was in South Africa that he developed his brand of Satyagraha.
‰ In India, he first used this tool against the British government at
Cabinet Mission Champaran in Bihar.
‰ The Cabinet mission was an influential mission sent to India by
the Atlee government (British Prime Minister) in February 1946.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
‰ Clement Attlee (British Prime Minister) has decided to send a ‰ The first civil disobedience movement by Gandhi in the freedom
delegation to India to hand over power from the British-Indian struggle.
government to Indian leaders. ‰ Persuaded by Rajkumar Shukla, an indigo cultivator, Gandhi
‰ Cabinet missions arrived in Delhi on March 24, 1946. There went to Champaran in Bihar to investigate the conditions of the
were three members on this mission: Sir Patrick Lawrence, A. farmers there.
W. Alexander, and Sir Stafford Kripps. ‰ The farmers were suffering under heavy taxes and an exploitative
‰ The delegation made a proposal on May 16, 1946. Cabinet system.
missions in India failed because the mission gave more power ‰ They were forced to grow indigo by the British planters under
to the provinces rather than the central ones. So, Congress did the tinkathia system.
not accept the proposal.
‰ Gandhi arrived in Champaran to investigate the matter but was
not permitted by the British authorities to do so.
Provisions of the Mountbatten Plan
‰ He was asked to leave the place but he refused.
‰ British India was to be divided into two territories: India and ‰ He was able to gather support from the farmers and masses.
Pakistan. ‰ When he appeared in court in response to a summons, almost
‰ The constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly does not 2000 locals accompanied him.
apply to areas with a Muslim majority (becoming Pakistan). ‰ The case against him was dropped and he was allowed to conduct
The issues of separate constituencies of Muslim-majority the inquiry.
constituencies will be decided by these provinces. ‰ After peaceful protests against the planters and landlords led
‰ According to the plan, the Bengal and Punjab legislatures met by Gandhi, the government agreed to abolish the exploitative
and voted for a split. Therefore, it was decided to separate the tinkathia system.
two provinces from a religious point of view. ‰ The peasants also received a part of the money extracted from
‰ The Sindh legislature will decide whether or not to join the Indian them as compensation.
Constituent Assembly. I decided to go to Pakistan.The June 3, ‰ Champaran struggle is called the first experiment on Satyagraha
1947 plan is also known as the Mountbatten plan. The British by Gandhi and later Ahmedabad Mill Strike and Kheda
government proposed a plan on 3 June 1947 that included the Satyagraha occurred.
following principles.
‰ It was during this time that Gandhi was given the names ‘Bapu’
and ‘Mahatma’ by the people.
Gandhiji Movements and other
contemperory Revolutions Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
‰ 1918 was an extended time of bombed crops in the Kheda region
Making of Gandhiji in South Africa of Gujarat because of dry seasons.
‰ According to regulation, the ranchers were qualified for
‰ In March 1919, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who was at abatement assuming that the produce was under a fourth of the
that point in his 50th year, required a cross country Satyagraha ordinary result.
against the Rowlatt Act, his first effort to lead an all-India battle. ‰ Be that as it may, the public authority denied any reduction in
‰ To comprehend the one who was going to assume control over the paying area income.
reins of the Indian public development and lead it through its most ‰ Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, under Gandhi’s direction, drove the
dramatic years, one should return somewhere around a quarter- ranchers to challenge the assortment of duties right after the
century, to 1893, when he started the battle of Indians against starvation.
racial segregation in South Africa as a 24-year-old attorney. ‰ Individuals from all positions and identities of the area loan their
‰ The youthful attorney who showed up in Durban in 1893 on help to the development.
a one-year agreement to assist Gujarati trader Dada Abdullah ‰ The dissent was serene and individuals showed astounding
with his lawful issues seemed, by all accounts, to be a common mental fortitude even despite difficulties like seizure of individual
youngster attempting to get by. property and capture.
‰ He was, nonetheless, the main Indian lawyer and the principal ‰ At last, the specialists surrendered and gave a few concessions
Indian with an advanced degree to come to South Africa. to the ranchers.

History 29
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) of the Khalifa in Turkey, against the allied powers particularly
Britain.
‰ Gandhi utilized Satyagraha and yearning strike interestingly ‰ As Turkey was defeated in the First World War, the Allies imposed
during a modern question between the proprietors and laborers strict terms on it Turkey was dismembered and the Khalifa
of a cotton factory in Ahmedabad. removed from power.
‰ The proprietors needed to pull out the plague reward to the
specialists while the laborers were requesting a climb of 35% Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22)
in their wages.
‰ The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant phase of the
‰ During the serene strike driven by Gandhi, he went through a
Indian independence movement from British rule. It was led by
yearning strike.
Mahatma Gandhi after the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. It aimed
‰ The Ahmedabad Mill strike was fruitful and the laborers have to resist British rule in India through nonviolent means.
conceded the compensation climb they needed.
‰ In this large number of developments, Gandhi had the option Chauri Chaura
to include the majority including ranchers, craftsmen, and,
surprisingly, the purported lower positions. ‰ The Swaraj Party was framed on 1 January 1923 by Indian
‰ This was a change from the past developments when the government officials and individuals from the Indian National
investment was restricted to the upper and the working classes Congress who had gone against Mahatma’s suspension of all
considerate opposition on 12 February 1922 because of the Chauri
Rowlatt Act Chaura misfortune, where

‰ Rowlatt Acts, (February 1919), a regulation passed by the Civil Disobedience Movement
Imperial Legislative Council, the governing body of British India.
‰ The demonstrations permitted specific political cases to be ‰ On January 31, 1930, Mahatma Gandhi sent a letter to Governor
attempted without juries and allowed the internment of suspects Irwin, explaining and setting out 11 points. The call to abolish
without preliminary. the tax on salt consumed by both the rich and the poor was the
‰ Their goal was to supplant the abusive arrangements of the most important of all calls.
wartime Defense of India Act (1915) with a long-lasting ‰ Gandhi ji stated in the letter, If all the points were not accepted
regulation. by March 11th the Congress would launch a civil disobedience
‰ They depended on the report of Justice S.A.T. Rowlatt’s advisory campaign.
group of 1918. ‰ Mahatma Gandhi led the People’s Salt March with 78 trusted
‰ The Rowlatt Acts were tremendously hated by an excited Indian volunteers.
public. ‰ The march from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarat’s
‰ All nonofficial Indian individuals from the gathering (i.e., the coastal town of Dandi stretched 240 miles.
people who were not authorities in the pilgrim government) cast ‰ Arrived in Dandi on April 6th and solemnly broke the salt law
a ballot against the demonstrations. by boiling seawater to make salt. This movement gave birth to
‰ Mahatma Gandhi coordinated a dissent development that drove the civil disobedience movement.
straightforwardly to the Massacre of Amritsar (April 1919) and
in this manner to his noncooperation development (1920-22). Gandhi Irwin Pact
‰ The demonstrations were rarely really carried out ‰ The Gandhi-Irwin Pact, also known as the Delhi Pact, was a
significant agreement signed on March 5, 1931, by Mahatma
Amritsar Massacre Gandhi and Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India. The pact was
the result of talks between Gandhi and the British government
‰ The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre or the Amritsar Massacre
at the Second Round Table Conference in London.
occurred when numerous locals assembled in the recreation area
for the festival of Baisakhi.
Poona Pact
‰ The Finders needed to likewise calmly fight the capture and
extradition of two public pioneers, Satyapal and Saifuddin ‰ The Poona Pact was a 1932 agreement struck at Poona, India,
Kitchlew. between leaders of the Indian National Congress and the
‰ Formally known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Scheduled Castes. Following British Prime Minister Ramsay
Act, 1919. MacDonald’s adoption of the Communal Award, which
‰ Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, established separate electorates for the Depressed Classes,
who had supported the activities of Brigadier-General Dyer, the accord arose as a consequence of talks.. The Poona Pact is
was killed by Udham Singh in London in 1940 as vengeance explained as follows:
against the slaughter.
‰ Udham Singh is accepted to have seen the slaughter as a kid. Quit India
‰ Quit India Resolution: In July 1942, the Congress Working
Khilafat Movement (1919-20) Committee met in Wardha and decided to give Gandhi command
of the nonviolent mass campaign. The resolution is commonly
‰ Khilafat Movement (1919-20) was a movement to express
referred to as the “Quit India” resolution.
Muslim support for the Caliph of Turkey, to protect the institution

30 History
‰ Proposed by Nehru and Patel: It was to be accepted by the All arrested and tried. Bismil, Khan, Lahiri and Roshan Singh
India Congress Committee meeting in Bombay in August, as were sentenced to death. Others were sentenced to deportation
proposed by Jawaharlal Nehru and seconded by Sardar Patel. or imprisonment.
‰ Demand For British Rule In India To End: On August 8, 1942,
the Congress assembly in Gowalia Tank, Bombay, approved the Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930)
Quit India Resolution. The group also agreed to seek an end to ‰ It is also known as the Chittagong Uprising.
British rule in India immediately. Gandhi was designated as the ‰ This was an attempt by revolutionaries to raid the arsenal of police
struggle’s leader. and volunteers in Chittagong (now Bangladesh).
‰ Surya Sen led this raid. Other members include Ganesh Ghosh,
Swaraj Party Lokenath Bal, Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Dutta, Ambika
Chakraborty, and Subodh Roy. The intruders could not find their
‰ The Swaraj Party, laid out as the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party,
weapon, but were able to cut phone and telegraph lines.
was an ideological group framed in India on 1 January 1923 after
the Gaya yearly gathering in December 1922 of the National ‰ After the raid, Sen planted the Indian flag at the police station.
Congress, that looked for more prominent self-government Many revolutionaries fled, but some were arrested and tried.
and political opportunity for the Indian individuals from the The government beaten‑up the revolutionaries hard. Many were
British Raj. imprisoned and deported to the Andaman Islands, and Surya
Sen was hanged. The police brutally tortured Sen before being
‰ It was motivated by the idea of Swaraj. In Hindi and numerous
hanged.
different dialects of India, swaraj signifies “autonomy” or “self-rule.”
‰ The two most significant pioneers were Chittaranjan Das, its Central Assembly Bomb Case (1929) and Lahore
leader, and Motilal Nehru, its secretary. Conspiracy Case (1931)
‰ Das and Nehru considered challenging races to enter the
‰ Revolutionaries Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt tried to
authoritative gathering with the end goal of blocking an
draw attention to their revolution by dropping leaflets and bombs
unfamiliar government.
on the Parliament House in Delhi. They failed to escape and were
‰ Many up-and-comers of the Swaraj Party were chosen for the arrested and imprisoned. Their intention was not to harm anyone,
focal administrative gathering and common regulative chamber but to popularize their revolutionary activities and philosophies.
in the 1923 races. Bhagat Singh was arrested in connection with the murder of
‰ In these lawmaking bodies, firmly went against the low British police officer JP Saunders. This case became known as
government approaches. the Lahore Conspiracy.
‰ Because of the Bengal PartitiOn, the Swaraj Party won the most ‰ Saunders accidentally died. The real target was James Scott,
seats during races to the Bengal Legislative Council in 1923. another police officer responsible for the Latino charges that
‰ The party crumbled after the demise of C. R. Das. resulted in the death of Lala Lajpat Rai. Others involved in
this murder were Sukhdev, Rajguru and Chandrashekhar Azad.
Kakori Conspiracy (1925) All were members of the Association of Hindustan Socialist
‰ This was a train robbery near Kakori, Uttar Pradesh. The attack Republics (HSRA).
was led by young men from the Hindustan Republican Association ‰ While in prison, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev, along
(later renamed the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association), with other political prisoners, went on a hunger strike for better
which included Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfakullah Khan, prison conditions.
Chandrashekhar Azad, Rajendra Lahiri and Thakur Roshan Singh. ‰ After trial, all three were sentenced to hang and executed in March
‰ Trains were thought to be loaded with bags of British government 1931. Azad was martyred in a gunfight with police in a park in
money. One of the robbers was killed.Revolutionaries are Allahabad in February of that year.

Important Newspapers and Associated Personalities

Newspapers/Journals Year and Place of Personality
Publication
The Bengal Gazette/Calcutta General Advertiser (First 1780, Calcutta James Augustus Hickey (1780)
newspaper to start publication)
Sambad Kaumudi (weekly in Bengali) 1821 Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Mirat-ul Akbar (First journal in Persian)
Banga-Duta (A weekly in four languages-English, 1822, Calcutta Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Dwarkanath Tagore
Bengali, Persian, Hindi)
Bombay Times (from 1861 onwards, The Times of India) 1838, Bombay Robert Knight and Thomas Bennett
Swadesamitran Madras G. Subramaniya Aiyer
The Hindu 1878, Madras G S Aiyar, Viraraghavchari and Subba Rao Pandit
The Bengalee (this and Amrita Bazar Patrika- the first 1862, Calcutta Girishchandra Ghosh (taken over by Surendra Nath
vernacular papers). — Banerjee in 1879)
Voice of India Dadabhai Naoroji

History 31
Rast Goftar (A Gujarati fortnightly)
Hindu Patriot 1853, Calcutta Girishchandra Ghosh
Somprakash 1858, Calcutta Dwarkanath Vidyabhushan
National Paper 1865, Calcutta Devendra Nath Tagore
Amrita Bazar Patrika (Bengali in the beginning and 1868, Jessore Shishir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh
later on English Daily) District
Bangadarshana 1873, Calcutta Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
The Statesman 1875, Calcutta Robert Knight
Indian Mirror 1862, Calcutta N.N. Sen and Devendranath Tagore
Kesari (Marathi) 1881, Bombay Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Maratha (English)
Sudharak — Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
Paridasak (Weekly) — Bipin Chandra Pal
Yugantar 1906, Bengal Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutta
Sandhya 1906, Bengal Brhamanabandab Upadhay
Indian Sociologist London Shyamji Krishna Verma
Bande Matram Paris Madam Bhikaji Cama
Free Hindustan Vancouver Taraknath Das
Ghadr San Francisco Ghadar Party
Talwar Berlin Virendrnath Chattopadhay
Kudi Arasu (Tamil) 1910 E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar), S S Mirajkar
Tribune 1881, Lahore Sardar Dyal Singh Majithia
Bombay Chronicle (a daily) 1913, Bombay Pherozshahs Mehta, B G Horniman
The Hindustan Times 1920, Delhi KM Panikkar as a part of Akali Dal Movement
Bandi Jivan Bengal Sachindranath Sanyal
Tagzin-ul-Akhlaq (journal) 1871 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Gujarati — Fardunjee Marzban
Indu Prakash — Gopal Hari Deshmukh
Som Prakash — Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Kal — Shivram Mahadev Paranjape
Young India, Harijan, Nav jeevan — Mahatma Gandhi
Indian Opinion (Don’t get confuse with ‘New India’ of
Annie Besant)
National Herald 1938, Delhi Jawaharlal Nehru
Vande Mataram
The People — Lala Lajpat Rai
Leader (in English)
Hindustan Dainik — Madan Mohan Malaviya
Independent 1919 Motilal Nehru
Pioneer — George Allen
Justice — T. N. Nair
Qaumi Awaz — Jawaharlal Nehru and Rafi Ahmad Kidwai
Commonweal
New India (Don’t get confused with Young India of M. — Annie Beasant
K. Gandhi)
Al-Balagh and Al-Hilal (Both Urdu weekly newspaper) 1912 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

32 History
 Comrade (Weekly English Newspaper) 1911 M. A. Jinnah
Mook Nayak (Marathi) — B. R. Ambedkar
Bahishkrit Bharat

income and finances. (A sixth member for public works was

Acts, Policies, Committes and added in 1874.)
Commisions, Viceorys and Governors ‰ The Council of Governors has been expanded for legislative
purposes. There should now be 6 to 12 additional members
(1857–1947) (appointed by the Governor-General).
‰ No bills relating to public income or debt, military, religious or
diplomacy may be passed without the consent of the Governor-
Vernacular Press Act (1878) General.
‰ The Governor-General has the power to overturn the decisions
‰ The Vernacular Press Act (1878) was passed in British India of the Council if necessary.
to restrict freedom of the press in India and British policy
‰ The Governor-General also had the power to promulgate
strengthened with the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Afghan War
ordinances without the consent of the Council in case of
(1878-80), in particular to prevent the expression of criticism of
emergency.
opposition.
‰ The British Secretary of State of India may revoke any bill passed
‰ Lytton, then Governor-General of India, proposed a bill that was by the Council of Governors.
unanimously approved by the Council of Governors on March
14, 1878. The Local Press Act (VPA) was passed to “better
control” the local press and to effectively punish and suppress
Indian Councils Act, 1892
“incitement” of “oriental publications”. After the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885, the
‰ As a result, the British treated the (non-English speaking) Indian demand for reform by the British-Indian administration increased.
media hostilely. One of the demands of the INC was legislative reform. Sir Dufferin
agreed to investigate the matter and set up a committee. The action
Government of India Act, 1858 was the result of this reflection.

The Indian Government Act of 1858 was a bill by the British Government of India Act, 1919
Parliament which transferred the government and territories of the
East India Company to the British Crown. The company’s rule over ‰ The passage of the Government of India Act of 1919 introduced
British territories in India ended and passed directly to the British a governorship system for local governments with administrative
government. advisors and ministers.
‰ The governor was the head of administration of the province.
Features of Government of India Act 1858 ‰ There are two lists.
z Reserved list: Governors and city councilors are responsible
‰ The British Indian Territory was ruled in the name of the British for this list. It covered topics such as law and order, irrigation,
Queen. finance, land income, and more.
‰ The Board of Directors and Control Committee are repealed. z Transferred list: Education, local government, health care,
‰ The powers of the Company’s Board of Directors have been excise tax, industry, public works, religious donations, etc.
vested in the Indian Minister of State. were dealt with by ministers here.
‰ This Secretary of State must be a member of the British ‰ These ministers are appointed from among elected members of
Parliament and a member of the Prime Minister’s Cabinet. He the legislature. They were responsible for those who elected them
had to seek the help of a council of 15. through the legislature.
‰ It was also a communication channel between the British ‰ The central government consists of enforcement and legislation.
government in the UK and the Indian administration. ‰ The bicameral legislature was established with two chambers - the
Legislative Assembly (the predecessor of the Lok Sabha) and the
‰ The British Parliament may ask questions about India through
State Council (the predecessor of the Rajya Sabha).
the Secretary of State.
‰ The representatives of the British government in India were Simon Commission
the governor and the governor (same person to avoid conflict).
‰ Simon Commission’s report was published in 1930. Prior to
‰ The Governor-General had to be supported by the Executive publication, the government was convinced that India’s views
Board. would be taken into account in the future and that India’s ruling
‰ This act repealed the dual government of the Pitt’s India Act. status would be a natural result of constitutional reform.
‰ This act also put an end to the doctrine of the Fall. ‰ He proposed the abolition of dual power and the establishment
of a representative local government.
Indian Councils Act, 1861 ‰ The Simon Commission enacted the Government of India Act
of 1935.
‰ A fifth member was added for the executive functions of the ‰ This committee was widely boycotted by Indians excluded from
committee. Now there were 5 members for home, military, law, the committee.

History 33
Government of India Act 1909. ‰ The capital was Dacca (presently Dhaka, Bangladesh), and
individuals were predominantly Muslim.
‰ It is also known as Morley‑Minto reforms 1909. ‰ The Hindus of west Bengal, who controlled the vast majority
‰ It legislative councils at the centre and the provinces increased of Bengal’s trade and expert and rural life, griped that the
in size. Bengali country would be parted in two, making them
‰ It introduced separate electorate for the Muslims which a minority in an area including the entire of Bihar and
means Muslim and only Muslims could note their Muslims Orissa. They viewed the segment as an endeavor to choke
representatives. patriotism in Bengal, where it was more evolved than
‰ Two Indians were nominated to the council of the secretary of somewhere else.
state for Indian affairs. ‰ Fomentation against the parcel included mass gatherings,
‰ It enlarged the deliberative functions of the legislative councils provincial turmoil, and a swadeshi (local) development to
at both the levels. blacklist the import of British merchandise.
‰ The segment was helped through regardless of the tumult, and
Government of India Act, 1935 the outrageous resistance went underground to frame a fear
terrorist movement.
In 1935, this Indian Government Act was passed on the recommen-
dation of the Simon Committee and the Round Table. ‰ In 1911, the year that the capital was moved from Calcutta
(presently Kolkata) to Delhi, east and west Bengal were brought
together
Indian Independence Act of 1947
‰ Assam again turned into a main commissionership, while Bihar
‰ It was also called the Mountbatten Plan, devised by Sir Mount- and Orissa were isolated to form another area.
batten, the last viceroy of India. ‰ The point was to join the pacification of Bengali opinion with
managerial comfort.
Provisions of the Mountbatten Plan ‰ This end was accomplished for a period, yet the Bengali
Muslims, having profited from the parcel, was furious and
‰ British India was to be divided into two territories: India and
disheartened.
Pakistan.
‰ According to the plan, the Bengal and Punjab legislatures met ‰ This disdain stayed all through the remainder of the British
and voted for a split. Therefore, it was decided to separate the time frame. The last division of Bengal at the parceling of the
two provinces from a religious point of view. subcontinent in 1947, what split Bengal into India in the West
and East Pakistan (later Bangladesh) in the east, was joined by
‰ The Boundary Commission, chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, was
established to establish the borders between the two countries. serious violence.
The commission was to divide Bengal and Punjab into two new
countries. Swadeshi movement
‰ The principality was given the option to remain independent or
‰ The Swadeshi development was an independence development
join India or Pakistan. Britain’s suzerainty over these kingdoms
ended. that was essential for Indian freedom development.
‰ After the Dominion was created, the British Parliament could not
enact laws in the territory of the new Dominion.
Formation of the Muslim league
‰ The Governor-General became head of the Constitution. ‰ On 30 December 1906, the All-India Muslim League (AIML),
famously known as the Muslim League was established in Dhaka,
Partition of Bengal British India (presently in Bangladesh).
‰ The partition of Bengal, (1905), was completed by the British ‰ The mutual thought that the Muslims are a different country was
emissary in India, Lord Curzon, regardless of solid Indian planted into the Indian political ethos first by Sir Syed Ahmed
nationalist opposition. Khan, a scholar and Muslim reformist.

34 History