SDA Physics Final Moodle

BOTSWANA OPEN UNIVERSITY
Inspire Tomorrow, Today
COLLEGE OF OPEN SCHOOLING
Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education
PHYSICS
SEDIRENG MOMPATI NDOLO, Subject Specialist Programme Developer
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CONTENTS
Contents
Unit One General Physics .......................................................................................................... 8

Lesson 1 Making Measurements I ....................................................................................... 14
Lesson 2 Making Measurements II ...................................................................................... 28
Lesson 3 Measuring Length – Vernier Caliper .................................................................... 50
Lesson 4 Measuring Length – Micrometer Screw Gauge .................................................... 63
Lesson 5 Measurements of Time ......................................................................................... 71
Lesson 6 Mass and Weight................................................................................................... 78
Lesson 7: Mass, Inertia and Centre of Mass ........................................................................ 83
Lesson 8: Motion .................................................................................................................. 90
Lesson 10............................................................................................................................ 104
LESSON 12 ........................................................................................................................ 111
Lesson 13: Effect of Force on Shape and Size-Hooke’s Law ............................................ 116
Extension = New length – Original length ..................................................................... 117
Lesson 14: Turning Effect of Force - Moments ................................................................. 132
Lesson 15: Effect of Force on Motion ............................................................................... 145
Lesson 16: Work, Energy and Power ................................................................................. 152
13.3: Work and Power ........................................................................................................ 165
Unit TWO THERMAL PHYSICS......................................................................................... 170
Lesson 1 Thermal Expansion of Matter ............................................................................. 171
Lesson 2 Measurement of Temperature ............................................................................. 179
Lesson 3 Melting and Boiling ............................................................................................ 194
Lesson 4 Thermal Transfer - Conduction .......................................................................... 211
Lesson 20: Thermal Transfer - Convection........................................................................ 220
Lesson 21: Thermal Transfer - Radiation .......................................................................... 227
Lesson 22: Wave Motion ................................................................................................... 233
LESSON 23: LIGHT .......................................................................................................... 240
LESSON25: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ................................................................ 260
THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER ......................................................................... 434
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FIGURES
Figure 1: Non-linear Relationship Between Variables ........................................................... 16
Figure 2: Linear Relationship Between Variables .................................................................. 16
Figure 3: Proportional Variables ............................................................................................ 17
Figure 4: Directly Proportional Variables .............................................................................. 17
Figure 5: Indirectly Proportional Variables ........................................................................... 17
Figure 6: A set of Rulers with Different Accuracies ................................................................ 30
Figure 7: Accuracy of a Voltmeter Figure 8: Accuracy of an Ammeter 30
Figure 9: Parallax Error in Different Instruments .................................................................. 31
Figure 10: Parallax Error in which the Scale is Far from the Object Being Measured ......... 32
Figure 11: Using a Mirror to Minimise Parallax Error.......................................................... 32
Figure 12: Zero Error in Rulers .............................................................................................. 33
Figure 13: A Face of an Ammeter Showing Positive Zero Error ............................................ 35
Figure 14: An Ammeter with a Negative Zero Error ............................................................... 35
Figure 15: A Helical Spring .................................................................................................... 38
Figure 16: The Vernier Caliper ............................................................................................... 51
Figure 17 A Simplified Partial View of the Vernier Caliper with Jaws Closed ...................... 52
Figure 18: The Diameter of the Tube ...................................................................................... 52
A Figure 19: A Vernier Scale without a Zero Error ................................................................ 55
Figure 20: A vernier scale with a positive zero error ............................................................. 56
Figure 21: A Vernier Scale With a Negative Zero Error ......................................................... 57
Figure 22: A Micrometer Screw Gauge .................................................................................. 64
Figure 23: The scale of a Micrometer Screw Gauge ............................................................... 64
Figure 24: How to Read a Micrometer Screw Gauge ............................................................. 65
Figure 25: Micreometer Screw Gauge with a Positive Error ................................................. 66
Figure 26: Micrometer Screw Gauge with a Negative Zero Error ......................................... 66
Figure 27: A Typical Pendulum Clock .................................................................................... 73
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Figure 28: Extension on a Spring .......................................................................................... 117
Figure 29: The Graph of Load vs Extension ......................................................................... 118
Figure 30: The effect of distance on the turning effect of force............................................. 133
Figure 31: The direction of Moments .................................................................................... 135
Figure 32: How to Determine the Direction of Moments ...................................................... 135
Figure 33: Demonstrating the Principle of Moments ............................................................ 137
sec 1 science - physics............................................................................................................ 186
2scanned by camScanner ....................................................................................................... 188
Figure 34: Convection in Liquids .......................................................................................... 221
Figure 35: Convection in Gases ............................................................................................ 222
Figure 36: Convection in a Hot Water System ...................................................................... 223
Figure 37: Surviving Smoke Through Convection................................................................. 223
Figure 38: How Convection Warms a Room ......................................................................... 224
Figure 39: Sea and Land Breezes........................................................................................... 225
Figure 40: Dessert Dwellers .................................................................................................. 228
Figure 41: Experiment to Show Good and Bad absorbers of Radiation ............................... 229
Figure 42: The Parts of a Thermos Flask and their Functions ............................................. 230
Figure 43 Waves: Longitudinal Nature of Sound ................................................................. 270
Figure 44: A longitudinal Wave Moving in a Spring ............................................................ 270
Figure 45: An Experiment to show that Sound Cannot Travel in Vacuum ........................... 273
Figure 46: Range of Infrasounds, Audible Sounds and Ultrasounds .................................... 275
Figure 47: Electromagnetic Induction................................................................................... 373
Figure 48: Direction of the Induced Current ........................................................................ 374
Figure 49: A Typical Coal Power Station ............................................................................. 380
Figure 50: A Simplified a.c. Generator ................................................................................. 381
Figure 51: How a.c. is Produced by the Turning Coil .......................................................... 382
Figure 52: A Bicycle Dynamo................................................................................................ 383

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Figure 53: A Picture of a Transformer Box........................................................................... 389
Figure 54: Mutual Induction ................................................................................................. 390
Figure 55: Replacing the Inducing Magnet with a d.c. Power Source.................................. 391
Figure 56: Replacing the Inducing Magnet with an a.c. Power Source................................ 392
Figure 57: Joining the Inductance Coils with an Iron Core ................................................. 392
Figure 58: A Transformer ...................................................................................................... 394
Figure 59: Transformer Symbol ............................................................................................ 395
Figure 60: Step - Down & Step - Up Transformers............................................................... 395
Figure 61: The Transformer Equation .................................................................................. 396
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FOREWORD
The outbreak of corona virus disease (Covid 19) pandemic has caused an unprecedented
crisis in the educational sector. In the low and middle-income
nations, teaching and learning has been rushed and squashed into
ill-developed distance learning modalities that are digital inclined.
This is despite students not having gadgets such as computers,
smartphones, or internet to be able to leverage on the use of
digitized school material. Botswana Open University (BOU) has
established itself as an authority in open and distance education
space. College of open schooling (COS) is mandated with provision
of opportunities for educations to individuals who are secondary
school age out of school children, who have been denied access to
further studying either at higher secondary or tertiary due to set standards for continuation in
academics or due to social distractions. Following its inception, the university has advocated
for ODL strategies that continue to minimize the use of face-to-face interaction. As part of
commitment spelt in its strategic framework, BOU responded to the disruption of teaching
and learning by provision of learning material for both Junior Certificate and Botswana
General Certificate of Secondary School into open website at zero charge for access. As a
government initiative, BOU has been mandated to address the learning needs of out-of-school
youth through open schooling. Thus, this makes open schooling not only relevant but rather
unavoidable in this 21st century context.
In responding to the challenges encountered in learning, the science programme will be

driven by constructivism learning theory. The programme emphasis is on social context of
learning as pivotal in learning. New concepts and other components are better conceptualised
when integrated to the prior knowledge of the learner. In fact, the programme takes advantage
of the native knowledge of the student (Social Constructivist) acquired through social
interaction and establish it as a platform for integration of new science concepts.
In recognition of the blended approach, the programme further embraces community of

inquiry model (COI) which is used here to drive the principle of technological pedagogical
content knowledge (TPACK). This informs crafting of technology in meeting the pedagogical
needs to engage content in specific contexts for enhanced learning in ODL.
In transition from ODL classroom teaching to online provision and support, BOU further
adopted an ADDIE model in structural development of the study material. The Analyses of
student characteristics, their prior knowledge and the resources necessary for learning was
considered. This was a prerequisite on presentation of the learning objectives of this subject
which includes describing coverage of material in audio and video. This design will embrace
auditory, visual and tactile learners’ spectrum among others. The creation of content was
developed in-house, in an effort to address the learning environmental orientation of the
learners. Since this is a new delivery mode that learners, support staff and parents may not be
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familiar with to some extent, appropriate training and briefing of both students, support staff
including the community was critical.
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CONTRIBUTORS
Authors/ Editors
Mokhobo Victoria Laletsang is a Physics teacher at Gaborone Senior

Secondary School, she has been teaching Physics since 2000. She is also
engaged as part-time tutor at BOU for both BGCSE (Physics) (2020)
and Diploma (HR & Business Management) since 2007 to date. Victoria
has written modules for BOU for the degree and diploma programmes in
different courses. Throughout the teaching period, Victoria has been
actively involved in mentoring and grooming learners for Science and Maths fairs. Victoria is
serving as a chairlady for the Physics standing committee and seats in the national panel for
curriculum review and development. Victoria holds a degree and PGDE in Physics, MBA
and is part qualified in CIMA.
Keamogetswe Khimbele is currently a lecturer of physics at

Molepolole College of education. He is a Motswana from Tonota born
in 1971. Keamogetswe completed his first degree from University of
Botswana in 1995 in BEd (Science) majoring in Physics. He worked in
local senior secondary schools offering Physics. He continued his
education and completed his second degree MEd (Science education)
in 2006. He continued to work as teacher and joined the college in
2010. Keamogetswe was also in a committee responsible for developing the physics syllabus
for the new outcome based (OBE) system. He is also an item developer and senior examiner
for BEC.
Koketso Tshosa is an Assessments Officer at the Botswana

Qualifications Authority (BQA). He was a Physics teacher at
Madiba Senior Secondary, Mahalapye (2007-2011), before joining
Oodi College of Applied Arts and Technology (OCAAT), Oodi, as a
Physics lecturer (2011-2019). He holds a Bachelor’s Degree Science
in Physics and a Post Graduate Diploma in Education from the University of Botswana.
Apart from his core duties, Koketso is the founder and President of Botswana Science
Technology Engineering and Maths (BOSTEM), a Non-Governmental Organisation that
educates the nation in STEM using exciting and interactive hands on activities.
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INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS SUBJECT
DESCRIPTION
Hello learner, Welcome to Botswana Open University (BOU), College of Open Schooling
(COS). COS offers you this Physics course which is a part of the Botswana General
Certificate of Secondary Education (BGCSE). Physics is a science course designed for
learners who have completed Junior Secondary Education. It provides learners with scientific
knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for tertiary training. Whilst a few of you might be
taking this Physics subject for the first time, it was designed to t resurrect and enhance your
prior knowledge especially those who are retaking the subject to sharpen and clarify
conceptualization of concepts where there have been not clearly comprehended. For those
taking it for the first time, the design will stimulate your social and foundational academic
knowledge to scaffold knowledge building throughout the learning process. This design is
informed not only by the instructional material development platforms but is further
emphasized in the BGCSE Science syllabus and started as thus, “It is important then that we
value the students’ own experiences, build upon what they know and reward them for
positive achievement”.
NB: The approach and design of this booklet acknowledges the fact that the learner is
studying on Open and Distance Learning (ODL) platform hence the material is developed to
be teacher enprint. The design makes it relevant for leaner to work alone and be able to
understand the concepts, however it does not discriminate on use of collaborative learning
through social media study groups or Learner management systems (LMS).
The Physics subject is structured into Units which are divided into Topics. Each Topics may
have 1 or more lessons. The Unit will always show the introduction, the Unit aims, Unit
content which here is the Topics covered within the Unit. Under each Topic there will be
lessons to be covered for such Topic.
Lesson Structure
The science lesson structure shall be as follows:
Introduction
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 It gives highlights on the background of the lesson to be learnt at that particular time.
This helps stimulates schemas and reorient the learners for proper new knowledge
connections.
Learning Objectives
 It describes output expected at the end of the lesson. It lists what the learners should
be able to execute or have acquired and able to apply at the end of the lesson.
Social Context
 In an effort to stimulate the learning process, the social prior knowledge that may
have not been relevant to science learning is brought on-bored and aligned to reveal
the abstract science behind it and detangled to create meaning to the facts and truth
that defines the scientific concepts. Here we do not necessary recap on the lesson
taught previously but rather make a deliberate effort to tap on the experienced
knowledge of the learner to enhance the learning process.
Key Issues
 Key issues refer to simply extracting social context concepts and integrating them to
scientific knowledge or terminology to propagate the schemas connection of new
knowledge or build further on clarification of new concepts or previously
misunderstood concepts
Scientific Integration
 The key issues are then defined according to the scientific laws and given meaning
meant to refine the social knowledge to new scientific knowledge useful in today
applications and innovations. This will then help take the learners throughout the
lesson with the assumption that the use of prior knowledge has provided a firm
foundation for proper learning process of the entire lesson.
Sample Question
 Equivalent to class exercise or activity, it evaluates or assess the learner’s

understanding of the concept taught during the lesson. Evaluates if the learners are
following correctly the taught lesson.
Sample Answer
The learners should be able to mark the sample question to establish if there is any
misunderstood that might need to be clarified further. Such misunderstood concepts
shall be brought forth during discussion forum online or during tutoring forums.
Summary
 It reflects briefly on issues or concepts learnt during the lesson showing how the
address the stated objectives mentioned for the lesson.
Task Question
 Similar to homework in conventional schooling, the task question assesses the overall
understanding and ability to apply the learnt knowledge as a way of formative
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assessment specifically for such listed objectives. The intention is to build the
confidence in addressing question to prepare learners for summative assessment.
Assessment
Assessment is an integral part of studying process for learners, while is also an evaluation
tool that critically examines the student progress and the program. The assessment comes into
two forms that monitors immediate lesson activity understanding within a short period of
time and the type that examines the conceptualization progress over a long term which can be
in a term, annual or biannually. The short-term assessment is referred as the Formative whilst
the long-term assessment is referred to as the summative.
The assessment for science in ODL takes two formats. The in-house assessment which is
usually formative is done in-house through sample question and task questions. The sample
question and task questions examine the student conceptualization of the lesson. This
assessment is key in building blocks for new knowledge in the next lesson to be
conceptualised. The sample question and task question are part of the lesson. The sample
answer is also part of the lesson, whereas the task answer is at the end of the study material.
The assignment is usually used to assess understanding of the whole Unit of the study
material. This helps determine the progress academic healthiness of the student. The mock
examination is the in-house summative assessment. In its nature, it should be used to
determine if the learners can progress to the other level or retake the year for better
performance. The mock examination comprises of three parts of the science, Biology
Chemistry and Physics which final makes up the Science double awards (SDA). Mock
examination gives a learner an understanding or a feel of how the final examination would be
presented.
Final examination is externally prepared by Botswana Examination Council. The science

final examination has three papers that are to be taken by all candidates.
 Paper 1 Multiple Choice: It consist of 60 items each with four options. The question
will test the skills in Knowledge with understanding and Handling information and
problem solving. The paper weighs 30% of the final total mark.
 Paper 3 Theory: It is a written paper consisting of short answers and structured
questions. Similarly the paper test the skills in knowledge with understanding and
handling information and problem solving. It is usually marked out of 100 and it
weighs 50% of the final total mark.
Paper 4 Alternative to Practical Test: The paper will test Experimental Skills and
investigations. It is designed to test familiarity with laboratory equipment and procedures.
The paper is marked out of 60 marks and it weighs 20% of the total final mark.
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UNIT ONE GENERAL PHYSICS
Unit Introduction
Welcome to the first unit of the Physics section of your Science Double Award subject. In
this unit we will look at the general issues in the subject. Specifically we are going to cover
issues of measurement, motion, mass, forces, and energy.
Unit Aims
After you have completed this unit, you should be able to:
 perform accurate measurement of length and time

 show understanding of motion and the relationship between the variables
 show the relationship between mass, weight and centre of mass
 show understanding of the effects of forces on shape and size of objects
 show understanding of the effects of force on motion
 acquire knowledge on turning effects of forces and appreciate their role in everyday
life
 acquire knowledge on sources of energy and their limitations
 show the relationship between work, energy
 show the relationship between work and power
Unit Content
This unit comprises four topics divided into various lessons as follows:
Topic 1: Measurements
Lesson 1: Making measurements I
Lesson 2: Making measurements II
Lesson 3: Measuring length – vernier caliper
Lesson 4: Measuring length – micrometer screw gauge
Lesson 5: Measurements of time
Topic 2: Mass
Lesson 6: Mass and weight
Lesson 7: Mass, inertia and centre of mass
Topic 3: Motion
Lesson 8:
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Lesson 9:
Lesson 10:
Lesson 11:
Lesson 12:
Topic 4: Forces
Lesson 13: Effect of force on shape and size-hooke’s law
Lesson 14: Turning effect of force
Lesson 15: Effect of force on motion
Topic 5: Work, energy and Power
Lesson 16: Work, energy and power
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Lesson 1: Making Measurements I
Introduction
Welcome to the first lesson in Physics. In this lesson we will look at variables, fundamental
quantities, SI units, and how to convert from one unit to another. You will find this topic very
important as it equips you with the tools that you will need in all the other topics that will
follow. Most importantly, the skills that you will learn in this topic are very vital in your
examinations when presenting your answers.
Learning Objectives
 Describe relationship between variables

 Identify fundamental quantities and state their SI units
 Use correct units to identify variables
 Convert from one unit to another
Lesson Content
1.1 Relationship between quantities
1.2 Fundamental quantities
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social Context
Almost everything that we do in our lives is based on some measurement of some kind. Take
a simple activity like making a cup of coffee for instance: You boil water, pour a certain
amount of the hot water in a cup, add a teaspoon of coffee, two teaspoons of sugar, and a bit
of milk.
Key Issues
Note that even though you are not using any sophisticated or precise instruments you are still
measuring by:
 Counting the number of spoons enough for the amount of water used.
 Boiling the water
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Now let’s see, what measurements do you make when making a cup of coffee? You will first
want to make sure that the temperature of water is correct by boiling the water, then you
pour a certain volume of water in a cup, then you will add a certain mass of coffee and sugar
(which you measured as number of teaspoons) and lastly a certain volume of milk. You
always want to ensure that the coffee has the right concentration of ingredients so that it
taste just the way you like it. You never just put any amount of the ingredients, you always
measure them!
As scientists, we perform experiment, so that we can make conclusions. In experimenting, we

make a lot of measurements. We then record and analyse these measurements so that we can
make generalisations. We can make measurements by direct observation (using only our 5
senses) or by using instruments. Direct observation means that we are just looking at
something. For example we can count the number of bubbles of oxygen being given off by an
underwater plant during photosynthesis. There are also a very large number of instruments
which we can use. Examples of instruments include simple things such as a ruler or a
thermometer or a stopwatch or a spring balance or a voltmeter or the instrument might be
very complex and expensive such as a spectrometer or a telescope or an electron microscope.
The things that we measure are called quantities or variables. Sometimes a change in one
variable can cause a change in another variable; this is called a relationship between
variables. The relationship can be linear or non-linear.
Non-Linear means the relationship between two quantities in which a constant change in one
quantity does not produce a constant change in the other quantity as shown in figure 1 below.
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Figure 1: Non-linear Relationship Between Variables
As you can see, X1 = X2 but Y1 ≠ Y2
Linear just means that the two variables give a straight line graph as shown in figures 2a, 2b,
and 2c below. For example, the distance - time graphs of a stationary object and an object
moving with constant velocity are both linear. Linear relationships can either be proportional,
directly proportional or indirectly (inversely) proportional.
Fig 2(a) Fig 2(b) Fig 2 (c)
Figure 2: Linear Relationships Between Variables
Proportional means that when one variable changes constantly, another one also changes
constantly but the graph of this relationship does not begin at the origin as shown below.
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Figure 3: Proportional Variables
Directly proportional means that a constant increase in one variable causes a constant
increase in the other variable. For example, when we increase a force on the spring at a
constant rate; the length of the spring increases at a constant rate. Other examples of
quantities that have the same relationship are current and voltage, resistance and length, force
and acceleration, mass and weight….can you think of others?
Figure 4: Directly Proportional Variables
Inversely proportional means that a constant increase in one variable causes a constant
decrease in the other variable. e.g. when the cross-sectional area of an object increases, its
resistance degreases. Other examples are: when you want to boil a large volume of water you
need a lot heat energy compared to a smaller volume.
Figure 5: Indirectly Proportional Variables
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There are many quantities that we measure, examples of some of them are length, volume,
mass, time, temperature etc. can you list some more of them?
1--------------------------, 2 -----------------------, 3-----------------------, 4------------------------ etc.
Out of these many quantities, we have 7 fundamental/basic quantities but we will only
learn about three at this point namely length, mass, and time. All the other physical
quantities are derived from these basic quantities. This means that they are made up from the
basic quantities. For example:
 Length has given rise to: perimeter, area, volume etc.

 Time has given rise to period, power, etc.
 Mass is the basis for weight, etc.
A combination of these gives: speed, velocity, acceleration, force, density etc.
1.3 Symbols
When we make measurements you get numbers that signify the magnitude of the quantity
measured. But how then would you identify the quantity that was being measured if it is
recorded just as a number? We use symbols and units to identify quantities.
These are letters that we use to identify our quantities if we don’t want to write the full name
of the quantity. These letters are specific to different quantities. This means that you cannot
use any letter for any quantity but you need to learn the correct symbol that is assigned to
each quantity. For example, the symbol for time is a small letter t, a capital T represents
temperature or period. This implies that some quantities have the same symbols and we
identify these quantities through the context in which they are used. Also to note is that
symbols of some quantities look like the first letter of the quantity while others have symbols
that are completely different from the first letter of the name of the quantity. E.g. force has a
symbol f that of mass is m but the symbols of charge and current are Q and I respectively,
not a C for any of them.
1.4 Units
Read the story below and see if it can teach you something very important!
I went to the shop at 9. I walked 15 and ran for 5. I bought 5 of milk. I met Neo at the shop.
She is 55, 65 and 1.35. She looked 21 though. I said hi and she told me she had only 2. We
parted ways.
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So, what do you think? Did you get the message? What do you think is missing? Yes, you
guessed it right. UNITS ARE VERY VERY IMPORTANT! Numbers without units are
MEANINGLESS!
If you do not write your units in the exam, test, or when you communicate, this is exactly
what the other person you are talking/writing to hears! Think about this all the time. But most
of us forget to write them and we lose marks if we ignore our units because we are not
communicating.
Let’s see if this is better:
I went to the shop at 9am I walked 15 m and ran for 5 minutes. I bought 5liters of milk. I met
Neo at the shop. She is 55 yrs, 65 kg and 1.35 m. She looked 21 yrs though. I said hi and she
told me she had only 2 children. We parted ways.
Doesn’t it sound realistic now with units? Can you figure out why we need units from the
above activity? We use units:
 to identify the quantities - a centimetre tells you that we are talking about length just
as minutes indicate time
 to indicate their magnitude a gram indicate small masses while tonnes indicate large
amounts of mass
1.4.1 SI Units
All basic measures are given units which are internationally agreed units of measure called SI
units (Systeme Internationale). Below are such units for our three fundamental quantities. Just
like quantities, units also have specific symbols and as you have learnt above, you need to
learn the correct symbols for the units; you do not want to give the wrong message.
Table 1: SI Units of the three fundamental quantities
Measurement Symbols SI Unit Other Units And Equivalents
l Metre 1cm = 0.01 m
Length (m) 1mm = 0.001 m
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1km = 1000 m
t Second 1 minute (min) = 60 s
Time (s) 1 hour (hr) = 3600 s
1 day = 86400 s
m Kilogram 1g = 0.001 kg
(kg)
Mass 1000 g = 1 kg
1 tonne (t) = 1000 kg
Quantities and their SI units
Activity 1
Complete the table below with as many quantities as you can. Every time you learn a new
variable in topics ahead, you should come back to this table to record that variable. It is very
important that you learn this table.
Table 2: Physical Quantities, their Symbols and SI Units
Quantity Quantity Symbol SI Unit SI Unit Symbol
Mass
Distance
Time
Current
Voltage
Resistance
Force
Area
Energy/work
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Power
1.4.2 Units Conversions
As you have seen above, we can have many units for a single quantity. We have SI units,
small units and large units. We sometimes have to change from one unit to another, for
various reasons. For examples, when our quantities are given in other units and we want to
use SI units, or when the quantities are given in small units and the numbers are too big so
want to use bigger units to make the numbers small, or we simply want to match the units
used. To achieve these conversions we use prefixes. Prefixes here mean words that we use to
represent certain multiplication factors (multiples of ten). You might be wondering: why do
we use prefixes not just these multipliers/numbers? To answer you, imagine this: Which one
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is better to work with? 23 millimeters or 23 x 0.001 meters or 0.023 m? You are right if you
are thinking 23 mm. This is why we use prefixes, to make numbers easier to handle.
Common prefixes used for larger or smaller quantities include the following;
Table 3: Common prefixes
prefix symbol Multiplying Standard Notation Examples

Factor
1 microseconds(μs)
1000000
6
micro µ microgram(μg)
(0.000001) ×10
1 milliliters (ml)
1000 3
milli m millimeters (mm)
×10
(0.001)
1 centimeters (cm)
100 2
centi C centiseconds (cs)
×10
(0.01)
Kilometer (km)
kilo K 1000 3
Kilogram (kg)
×10
kilojoules (kJ)
megawatts (MW)
mega M 1000000 6
megahertz (MHz)
×10
giga 9
Gigahertz (GHz)
G 1,000,000,000 ×10
Gigabytes
Examples
Let us see how we can use the prefixes to convert smaller units to bigger units and vice versa.
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As we have learnt above, prefixes are actually multiples of 10. For instance; the prefix kilo
1
has a value 1000, just as centi has a value 0.01 or . So if we say centimeter (cm) we are
100
1
actually saying 0.01 m or m. Therefore if we say 5 cm, we are simply saying 5 × 0.01 m
100
which is equals to 0.05 m! We have just converted 5 cm into m! Also, if we say 6 Megawatts,
we are simply saying 6million watts; i.e. 6 × 1,000,000 watts which is equals to 6,000,000 W.
Simple isn’t it? A few more examples: Let’s convert:
a) 35 mm to kilometers
b) 89 kg to milligrams
c) 72 km/h to m/s
Answers
35 mm to kilometers. We can start here:
÷ 10 ÷100 ÷1000
mm cm m km
× 10 ×100 ×1000
Then it means:
35 mm ÷ 10 = 3.5cm ÷100 = 0.035 m ÷ 1000 = 0.00035 km
This is the same as: 35 mm ÷ (10 × 100 × 1000)
= 35 mm ÷ 1000 000
= 0.00035 km
89kg to milligrams. In the same way:
÷ 10 ÷100 ÷1000
mg cg g kg
× 10 ×100 ×1000
Then it means:
89 kg × 1000 = 89,000g × 100 = 8,900,000cg × 10 = 89, 000,000 mg
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This is the same as: 89 kg × (10 × 100 × 1000)
= 89 kg × 1000 000
= 89, 000,000 mg
𝑘𝑚
72 km/h to m/s. 72 km/h can also be written as: 72 . We now know that kilo = 1000 and
ℎ
we need to get the second equivalent of an hour.
÷ 60 ÷ 60
Seconds Minutes Hours
× 60 ×60
1 Hr = 60 minutes × 60 seconds
= 3,600 seconds
𝑘𝑚
So: 72 ℎ
1000𝑚
= 72 3600𝑆
1000
= 72 (3600) m/s
= 20 m/s
What have we learned from these examples?
Next to a small unit, the number (quantity) has a large value and next to a bigger unit the
quantity has a smaller value. (Remember the reasons we have different units?)
24
When we change from a smaller unit to a bigger unit we divide and from a bigger unit to a
smaller unit we multiply. This explains the statement in 1 above! The general rule for units
conversion, therefore, is that:
MORE LESS MULTIPLY; LESS MORE DIVIDE
1.4.3 Deriving Units for Non-Fundamental Quantities
Remember we talked about fundamental quantities and derived quantities? Derived quantities
also have derived units. Let’s see how we derive units. Ever wondered why the units of area
are m2? Of volume are m3? Of density are kg/m3? Of acceleration are m/s2? This is why:
Most of the derived quantities are often calculated from other quantities. The same way we
calculate them, is the same way we calculate/derive their units. Let us now look at some
examples:
Area
Area = length in meters × width in meters.
A=m×m
= m2
e.g. Area of 5 m × 8 m
= (5 × 8)(m × m)
= 40 m2
Volume
In the same way... volume = length in meters × width in meters × breadth in meters
i.e. m × m × m
= m3
Acceleration
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠 – 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠

𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑚/𝑠
= 𝑠
25
𝑚 𝑠
This means: = ÷1
𝑠
𝑚 1
= ×
𝑠 𝑠
𝑚
= 𝑠2
or simply m/s2
Summary
 In this lesson we have established that:

 things we measure are called variable or quantities
 Variables can have a linear or proportional relationship
 There are seven fundamental quantities but we study only three namely mass, m, in
(kg), length, l, in (m) and time, t, in (s)
 Units and symbols are used to identify our quantities
 In the metric system, the larger and smaller units are defined in multiples of 10 from
the SI unit, and this makes calculation particularly easy
 Units can be converted form small to big or from big to small using the rule: less
more divide, more less multiply
 Units of non-fundamental quantities can be derived from their calculations
Now that we have learnt about symbols and units, going forward into lesson 2 we shall look
at the correct way of recording the measurements we make, how to analyse these
measurements and present them in the most correct manner
Task Questions
1. Convert the following to SI unit:
(a) 24 km = ……………………m
(b) 55 cm = ……………………m
(c) 56 MJ = ………….…………J
(d) 9.8 g = ……………………Kg
(e) 35 mg = ………….………Kg
26
(f) 77 S = …….……...……… S
For more exercises on conversion of units you can go to:

https://www.homeschoolmath.net/worksheets/measuring-metric.php
2. Derive units for the following quantities
a) Weight calculated from: Weight = mass × gravity
b) Density calculated from: Density = mass ÷ volume
c) Moments calculated from: Moments = force × distance
References
Duncan, T., Kennett, H., (2014) IGCSE Physics. Hodder Education, an Hachette UK
Company, 338 Euston Road London NW1 3BH
Giancoli, C ,D., (2014), Physics: Principles with Applications. Pearson Education, Inc
California
27
Lesson 2 Making Measurements II
Introduction
Welcome to Lesson 2 in topic 1. In this lesson we shall look at how we properly present data
from measurements, taking into consideration the errors that may be incurred during the
experimentation phase. We also look at how to analyse the data that we would have gathered
through measurements.
Learning objectives
 Identify the accuracy of a given instrument

 Identify sources of error in measurements
 Record results in an appropriate manner
 Use proper number of significant figures in calculations
 Plot results on a graph
Lesson Content
2.1 Accuracy of the instrument
2.2 Sources of Error in Measurements
2.3 Recording Results in an Appropriate Manner
2.4 Analysing Your Results
Social context
Remember the coffee making example above? When we are at home, we do measure but a lot
of our measurements are accompanied by a lot of estimations. For example, we never actually
put the thermometer in the cup to test the temperature of the water. But we still know when
the temperature is right for the coffee! Even the teaspoons of sugar, some people will make a
full heap; some would prefer just a level heap of sugar. This may result in the coffee tasting
differently for different people.
Key Issues
Measurements may not be exactly what we need them to be for various reasons!
Scientific integration
28
This method of measurement may give varying accuracy of result. Also, as we make
measurements, we are likely to incur errors which we need to account for in our records.
Once we have measured, we need to record our measurements, analyse them in order to use
them to formulate theories, comparisons etc.
2.1 Accuracy of the instrument
To make accurate measurements, we use instruments. But even instruments do not have the
same accuracy. For example, your ruler has different accuracies. On one side it can measure
accurately only a minimum of a centimetre while it can measure accurately a minimum of a
millimetre on the other side. Look at the rulers below; which one can be said to be more
accurate? But what exactly do we mean by accuracy of an instrument?
The accuracy of an instrument means the smallest measurement your instrument can make
accurately without you having to estimate anything! This is the number that comes
immediately after the zero that you can read off the instrument.
For example:
1. Let us find the accuracy of these rulers.
cm
cm
cm
(d)
29
Figure 6: A set of Rulers with Different Accuracies
The accuracy of the following rulers are:
a) Accuracy: 1cm Reading: 9cm
b) Accuracy: 0.5cm Reading: 8.5cm
c) Accuracy: 0.2cm Reading: 11.8cm
d) Accuracy: 0.2cm Reading: 10.0cm
From the above example, we say that ruler (c) has the highest accuracy or is the most
accurate as it can measure very small lengths.
2. What is the accuracy of these instruments?
Figure 7: Accuracy of a Voltmeter Figure 8: Accuracy of an Ammeter
Accuracy: 0.1v Accuracy: 0.2mA Reading: 1.6mA
The accuracy of the instrument determines the number of decimal places that all your
measurements made using the same instrument should have. Even whole number
measurements should have the same number of decimal places as the non –whole numbers!
30
2.2 Sources of Error in Measurements
Every time we make measurements with any instrument, we always encounter errors. Please
note that an error here is different from a mistake. We cannot fix or get rid of errors but we
can only minimise their effects on our measurements; whereas a mistake we can get rid of.
We have three types of errors:
 Parallax error
 Zero error
 Human reaction time error
Let us look at each one in turn:
2.2.1 Parallax error
Parallax errors are errors due to the incorrect positioning of the eye when taking the reading
from the instrument. If the eye is positioned at an angle, it might read a larger or a smaller
reading.
Figure 9: Parallax Error in Different Instruments
Secondly, it can occur if the object being measured is not touching the markings of the scale,
i.e. if there is a gap between the instrument and the object being measured. A thick meter rule
makes the scale to be away from the object being measured creating a gap between the two as
shown in figure 10 below.
31
Figure 10: Parallax Error in which the Scale is Far from the Object Being Measured
You can minimise the impact of parallax error by:
 Placing the eye vertically above the marking on the scale to be read.
 Placing the metre rule on its edge beside the object to be measured so that the scale is
touching it, i.e. there is no gap between the instrument and the object being measured.
 Using a thin rule so that the scale is touching the object to be measured.
 Using reflective mirror on the instrument as shown in the figure 11 below.
Source:
https://www.quora.com/How-do-I-use-set-squares-to-remove-parallax-error-in-measuring-
the-displacement-of-pendulum
Figure 11: Using a Mirror to Minimise Parallax Error
2.2.2 Zero Error
It is a type of error in which an instrument cannot start measurement at zero for whatever
reason. We have three types of such situations.
32
 Worn out ends zero error common in rules.
 Positive zero error
 Negative zero error
Both positive and negative errors are mostly found in instruments such as the Vernier
calipers, micrometre screw gauge, ammeters, voltmeters, spring balances etc. Let us look at
each one separately.
Worn Out Ends:
This is an error you incur when the meter rule does not begin at zero because of broken ends,
figure 12, or the readings have been erased as the rule gets old.
Figure 12: Zero Error in Rulers
When your rule is like this, this is how you use it and still get accurate measurements. Pick
any visible number on the rule and use it as your zero and then count the next number as one.
i.e. if we pick one as our starting point, then we count two as one, three as two and so on. Or
get the actual length by subtracting the ending number from the starting number.
Examples
What is the length of the square below?
33
The reading is:
Take 160 mm as 0 mm and count 1 mm at 161 mm, 2 mm at 162 mm…10 mm at 170 mm

and so on.
Or ; 220 mm – 160 mm = 60 mm
The diagram shows an enlarged drawing of the end of a metre rule. It is being used to
measure the length of a small feather.
What is the length of the feather?
Answer: 19 mm
2. A piece of cotton is measured between two points on a ruler.
What is the length of the cotton?
Answer: 15.6 cm – 2.4 cm = 13.2 cm.
Positive Zero Error
This error occurs when the instrument already shows a reading even when it is not measuring
anything; figure 13. We call this reading the error. This means that the actual measurement is
going to be increased by the value of the error.
34
Figure 13: A Face of an Ammeter Showing Positive Zero Error
To get the true measurement, you first note down the value of the error. Then use the faulty
instrument to make the measurement. Then subtract the error from the measurement. We will
discuss this error in detail in the following sections.
Negative zero error
Negative zero error is indicated in the ammeter shown in figure 14. This error occurs when
the instrument already shows a reading that starts before zero even when it is not measuring
anything. This means that the actual measurement is going to be decreased by the value of the
error.
Figure 14: An Ammeter with a Negative Zero Error
35
To get the true measurement, you first note down the value of the error. Then use the faulty
instrument to make the measurement. Then add the error to the measurement. We will
discuss this type of zero error in more details in later sections.
2.2.3 Human Reaction Time Error
Some writer once said, ‘If somebody throws a punch at you, it is “human reaction time” that
determines whether you block the punch or get a bloody nose! Human time error is the
“response time” or the time it takes for a person to see (or hear, feel, smell or taste)
something, process the encounter in their mind and respond to it. This is an error that is
common when a person is expected to start or stop two events at the same time. The brain has
to process one event first and then command a response then continue to process the second
event. This implies that there will be time that passes between the two messages. This is most
likely to result in one event starting faster or slower than the other; you would be very lucky
if you could start them at the same time!
Human reaction time error is common in timed experiments, where you have to start the
experiment at the same time starting the clock! How accurate are you likely to be?
How can you address this problem?
In such situations, you can minimise the effects of this error by repeating the experiment a
couple of times and then finding the average result. We shall talk more about this error when
we deal with time measurement.
2.3 Recording Results in an Appropriate Manner
Once we have taken our measurements, we need to record them in a way that is easy to read
and use. If there is one or two measurements, you will just note them down with correct
accuracy and units. If there are many results, you record them in a table.
2.3.1 The Table
There is a specific way you have to follow in coming up with a table of results and they are
listed below.
 You draw the table with a ruler making sure that there are no lines that go beyond the
corners or there are no gaps between boundaries.
 Write the names of the variables stroke their units (i.e. height/m) in the first row.
NEVER WRITE UNITS IN THE BODY OF THE TABLE!
36
 All measurements made using one instrument should all be to the same number of
decimal places determined by the accuracy of the instrument used to obtain them.
Like this:
Table 4: Correct way of recording Results in a Table
distance / m Time/s speed/m/s
6.5 2 3.25
2.0 4 0.50
0.3 6 0.05
Not like this. This is a very poor table!
Table 5: A Poorly Done Table of Results
distance / m Time/s speed/m/s
6.5 kg 2m 3.25m/s
2 kg 4m 0.50m/s
0.3kg 6m 0.05m/s
2.4 Analysing Your Results:
Once you have recorded your measurements, you might need to analyse them to get the
information they give you. There are a number of ways of analysing results but we will focus
on two: calculations and graphs.
2.4.1 Calculations
When conducting calculations there a number of useful steps that you could follow that can
help you carry out your calculations without a lot of difficulty and get the marks. We shall
use an example to learn the steps. Read through the question below and try to follow the steps
that are outlined below.
37
1. A helical spring is hung from the edge of a bench top, as shown in Fig. 15 below.
Figure 15: A Helical Spring
Before the load is hung on the spring, the pin points to the 29.8 cm mark on the meter rule.
When a load of 5.5 N is hung on the spring, the pin points to 62.8 cm.
Calculate:
i) the extension of the spring.
extension = _____________________________
ii) the numerical value of the constant.
constant = _____________________________
[4]
Now let us see how you would go about this: The steps:
1. Read through the stem of the question and the sub questions establishing any
relationships between the sub questions. Study the diagram if there is any, trying to
get as much information from this as possible.
2. Extract the variables from the questions and note them down as a list on the side. This
list helps you to quickly identify the given variables and the needed one. It also helps
you figure out the relevant equation that you can use.
38
Let’s see what variables we have been given:
lo = 29.8 cm; l1 = 62.8 cm; F = 5.5 N e = ?; k= ?
3. Next write down the formula of the variable you need to calculate and substitute the
variables into the equation
𝑒 = 𝑙1 − 𝑙𝑜
𝑒 = 62.8 𝑐𝑚 − 29.8 𝑐𝑚
𝑒 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒
𝐹
𝑘=
𝑒
5.5 𝑁
𝑘=
33.0 𝑐𝑚
𝑘 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝑵/𝒄𝒎
4. Your answers should be recorded to two decimal places or three significant figures
or as they appear on the calculator screen if they give a definite number. Therefore,
𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕
5. Never forget to write your units! A lot of times learners write correct answers but
forget to put down their units. Remember we have already established in the previous
LESSON that numbers without units are useless hence they do not deserve any
marks! As such, the correct answer is:
𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝑵/𝒄𝒎
2.4.2 Graphs
We use graphs to display data; perhaps because graphs:
 Are easy to interpret

39
 Display a large amount of information in a small (ish) space
 Are easy to draw!
 Are worth LOADS of marks in exams (typically 4-8marks)
How to plot a graph
When plotting your graph, always make sure that you do ALL of the following. These are a
MUST! YOU CAN NOT AFFORT TO MISS EVEN ONE OF THEM!
Let us use this example to show the steps:
A student was studying how the motion of a train was changing in 5 seconds. The table below
shows the data she collected. Plot the graph of distance against time in order to analyse the
motion.
Distance/m 0 20 36 60 84 98
Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5
Speed/m/s 0 20 17 20 20.75 19.6
The steps are as follows:
1. Write an appropriate heading for the graph at the top of your graph to state what the
graph is describing, such as the y-axis variable vs. the x-axis variable. e.g.
Train Motion or The Graph of the Train Distance Against Time
2. Draw a vertical line and a horizontal line on the boundaries of your grid to represent
the vertical and horizontal axes with a ruler, even if your paper has lines, these are
not axes so you, yes you, have to draw the axes. Make arrows at the ends of these
axes.
40
The Graph of the Train Distance against Time
As you can see, the lines of the grid are dark; it is your responsibility to ensure that your axes
are visible.
3. Label the axes with correct names of the two quantities you are plotting and their
units. You write the dependent quantity or the one that appears first in the instruction
on the vertical axis and the independent quantity or the last one in the instruction you
write on the horizontal axis. i.e. If the instruction says: “plot the graph of extension
against load” then you write extension on the vertical axis and load on the horizontal
axis.

Distance/m
time/s
41
Notice that there is no need to write the words y-axis and x- axis as we have specific names
for y - distance and x – time! And that we do not put the units in the brackets but use /.
4. Choose an appropriate scale for your graph looking at the maximum value in your
measurements. The scale should be easy to read. The numbers should be in order just
the way you count them. (Some learners just pick the data on the table and plot it
even if the numbers are not in order. This is WRONG!) Choose your scale such
that your graph covers more than half the square page on both axes.

100
80
Distance /m
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time/s
5. Plot your coordinates using a small X.
42
100
90
80
70
Distance /m
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
time/s
6. Join the points with a line of best fit. This is a line that passes through or near as many
of your data points as possible. It can either be straight lined, or a smooth curve. Look
for the pattern to decide which is most appropriate.
43
90 100
80
70
60
Distance/m
50
40
30
20
10
0
Time/s
7. Calculate the gradient. To calculate the gradient, you need to choose ANY two sets of
coordinates on your graph - your (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) - even if you did not plot them
i.e even if they are not in your table! Just as long as they are on the line of best fit.
Make sure that the distance between the coordinates that you pick covers more than
half of your line. You then have to shows which coordinates you have chosen using
lines as shown by the yellow lines below.
44
90 100
80
70
60
Distance/m
50
40
30
20
10
0
Remember from your Maths class you learned this equation:
y = mx + C?
Where:
 y – y coordinate
 x – corresponding x coordinate
 m – gradient
 C – y intercept i.e. where our graph crosses the y axis
Most of Physics graphs cross the y-axis at zero since most of our variables are directly
proportional hence your C is most of the time zero. As such the equation becomes:
y = mx
Therefore our gradient becomes:
45
𝐲
𝐦 =
𝐱
But for accuracy we want to take the average values of y and x so this becomes:
y2 − y1
m =
x2 − x1
From the graph, our coordinates are as follows (1 , 20) and (4 , 80) Therefore our gradient is:
80 m − 20 m
m =
4s−1s
m = 20 m/s
It is always very important to write the coordinates with their units as this will help you
determine the units of your gradient.
Summary
What have we learned in this lesson? We established that:
 In making measurements, we start off by identifying the accuracy of a given

instrument. This will help us determine the number of decimal places that our
recorded measurements should have.
 Whenever we make measurements, we encounter errors that we need to account for in
the end so as to report accurate measurements. We discussed parallax error, zero error
and human reaction time error.
 Results are recorded in an appropriate manner – on a table and there are specific
standards that we need to adhere to in drawing the table.
 In analysing the results of our measurements, we can use calculations and or graphs.
When recording calculated results always use proper number of significant figures in
calculations.
 Finally we learnt that results can be plotted on a graph following a certain set of
guideline.
Task questions
Let us now put what we have learnt into practice.
1. You want to find the mass of a toy car. You know you can do this by studying the
acceleration of the toy car when it is pulled along a track by a force F.
46
The arrangement is shown in the diagram below.
You start with a force F of 0.5 N to pull the toy car along a track and electronically measures
the acceleration a. He records the results in a table. He repeats the procedure using a range of
different forces up to 2.5 N. The readings are shown in Table below.
F/N 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
a/m/s2 0.0 0.35 0.70 1.20 1.44 1.74 2.10 2.44 2.80
Plot a graph of F/N (y-axis) against a/m /s2 (x-axis).
[4 marks]
47
(b) Theory suggests that the acceleration is directly proportional to the force applied to the
toy car. State whether the results support this suggestion and justify your statement by
reference to the graph.
48
Statement___________________________________________________________________
Justification_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________[2]
(c) The gradient of the graph is equal to the mass of the toy car. From the graph, determine
the mass m of the toy car. Show clearly how you obtained the necessary information.
m =_______________________________ [3]
References
California
Moffat, B., (2018), How do I use set squares to remove parallax error in measuring the
displacement of pendulum?Available at: https://www.quora.com/How-do-I-use-set-squares-
to-remove-parallax-error-in-measuring-the-displacement-of-pendulum. Retrieved on 10th
April 2019
49
Lesson 3 Measuring Length – Vernier Caliper
Introduction
Welcome to lesson 3. In the previous lesson, we have discussed measurement, including

error, accuracy, recording and analysing results. In this lesson, we will cover vernier caliper.
We will start of by looking at the parts of vernier caliper and function of the parts. We will
also learn how to take readings from a vernier caliper, as well as how to determine the zero
error from a vernier caliper.
Learning objectives
 Measure small lengths accurately using vernier caliper

 Identify sources of errors in measurement of length from a given measuring
instrument.
Lesson Content
3.1 How a vernier caliper works
3.2 Zero Error in a Vernier Caliper
Social context
Imagine you want to replace a broken pipe, How do you know what diameter you should
buy? Both the inside and the outside diameters? On the same note, what would you say is the
diameter of the coin below?
In lesson 2 we discussed about the accuracy of an instrument. We established that the higher
the accuracy the more accurate the measurements we can make with such an instrument. One
such instrument that can help us determine with more accuracy the diameters of objects such
as the coin above is a vernier caliper. A vernier caliper is used to measure both internal and
50
external distances with utmost accuracy and least error. Unlike your normal 30 cm ruler with
an accuracy of 1 mm or 0.5 cm, a vernier caliper has an accuracy of 0.01 cm. Below is a
diagram that shows a vernier caliper, its parts and their functions.
Source: http://www.excelatphysics.com/vernier-calipers.html
Figure 16: The Vernier Caliper
3.1 How a Vernier Caliper Works
The diagram below shows a simplified view of the vernier caliper. The main scale is on the
body of the caliper, and is marked off in millimetres but mostly it is in centimetres. Each of
the smaller divisions represents one millimetre or 0.1cm. The vernier scale is on the sliding
part of the vernier caliper, and it is marked off in millimetres. Each small division on the
vernier scale is 0.1 mm or 0.01cm. When the jaws of the vernier caliper are closed; as shown
in the illustration below, the zero mark on both scales is aligned. The remaining marks on the
vernier scale are progressively out of step with the corresponding marks on the main scale
except also for the last division.
51
Figure 17 A Simplified Partial View of the Vernier Caliper with Jaws Closed
When using the vernier caliper to measure the diameter of a thin-walled aluminium tube, you
will roll back the vernier to fit the tube between the jaws. This will move the vernier scale to
backwards over the main scale and the two zeros will move out of alignment. The diameter of
the tube is the distance between the two zeroes on the main scale as shown below.
Figure 18: The Diameter of the Tube
If you look at the zero mark on the vernier scale, you will see that it lies somewhere between
the 16mm (1.6cm) mark and the 17mm (1.7cm) mark on the main scale. So, at this point, we
know that our diameter is greater than 1.6cm but less than 1.7cm so we will take the lesser of
the two numbers, i.e. the number that is immediately to the left of the zero of the vernier.
But we still have that smaller distance in between the two marks (1.6 and 1.7) to account for.
To get this smaller distance, we need to look at the vernier scale. What we need to look for
here is a mark on the vernier scale that aligns exactly with a mark on the main scale. If you
look carefully, you will see that this alignment occurs at the eighth interval on the vernier
scale shown with the orange arrow on the illustration below.
0.8mm = 0.08cm
52
Figures 1….Adapted from: https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/682752/student-vernier-
caliper-measure-length-small-wooden-block-di
This means that the outside diameter of our tube is 1.6 cm plus 0.08 cm, or 1.68 cm.
Examples
Let’s go through some examples to ensure that you understand the above steps. Read and
record the following vernier readings.
a)
Answer
Main scale reading: 10.0 cm (Immediate left of zero of the vernier)
Vernier scale reading: 0.02 cm (Vernier scale reading that aligns with a reading of the main
scale)
Measurement reading: 10.02 cm (main scale reading plus vernier reading)
b)
NB
53
In other instances the vernier scale will be above the main scale but you should be able to
recognise it as it always has only 10 divisions and this makes it shorter than the main scale.
However the way you take the readings is just the same as for a) above.
Answer
Main scale reading: 3.2 cm (Immediate left of zero of the vernier)
Vernier scale reading: 0.04 cm (Vernier scale reading that aligns with a reading of the main
scale)
Measurement reading: 3.24 cm (main scale reading plus vernier reading)
If you want to know more you can visit this video on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vkPlzmalvN4&t=34s
3.2 Zero Error in a Vernier Caliper
In lesson 2 we introduced the concept of zero error. Do you still remember how we defined
this? If not you can revisit the lesson. As we have learned before, a zero error arises when the
measuring instrument does not start from exactly zero.
3.2.1 No Zero Error
You know that a vernier caliper does not have a zero error if when the jaws are closed, the
vernier scale zero and main scale zero are in line as shown in 19 below.
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A Figure 19: A Vernier Scale without a Zero Error
Source: https://tuisyen.my/author/skkwee/page/4/
A zero error in a vernier caliper occurs when the vernier caliper is set to its closed position,
i.e. with the measuring jaws in contact with each other but the zero on the vernier scale does
not match with the zero on the main scale, that is to say the reading is not zero.
If you have only one vernier caliper and it happens to have a zero error, what do you do? In
such a situation, you will use the instrument as it is but you will have to follow the steps
below so as to get accurate measurements:
Note and write down the value of the error
Take the measurement with the instrument and note down the reading
Lastly, subtract value of the error from the measurement you took in 2 above to get the true
size of your object.
Zero errors can be of two types: positive zero error or negative zero error.
3.2.2 Positive Zero Error
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The diagram below shows the reading on a vernier caliper when the jaws of the caliper are
closed firmly. We can see that the two zeroes are not in line with each other. Instead, the zero
mark on the vernier scale lies on the right side of the zero mark of the main scale when the
jaws are closed giving a reading is slightly higher than zero. This indicates that the caliper is
has a positive zero error. A positive zero error is when the caliper shows a reading greater
than zero even when its jaws are firmly closed.
Figure 20: A vernier scale with a positive zero error
The vernier scale registers a reading of 0.02 cm. Therefore, the zero error is +0.02 cm. A
positive zero error is read from the zero mark on the left hand side of the vernier scale.
3.2.3 Negative Zero Error
Similarly a negative zero error is when the zero mark on the vernier scale lies before the zero
on the main scale when the caliper is closed as shown in fig ….below. In other words the
reading is less than zero.
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Figure 21: A Vernier Scale With a Negative Zero Error
The Vernier scale registers a reading of 0.07 cm. A lot of students will think that this is the
zero error. Well, actually, this is not the negative zero error. A negative zero error must be
read from the “0” mark on the right hand side on the vernier scale going to the left. In this
case, the zero error is -0.03 cm.
Summary
In this lesson we have learnt that:
 a vernier caliper is an instrument that can measure short lengths with more accuracy
than a normal ruler as it can measure to two decimal places
 It has two scales, the main scale and the vernier scale. The value of one division on
the main scale is 0.1cm
 The value of one division on the vernier scale is 0.01cm
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 When reading the vernier scale we follow the following steps:
o Pick the division on the main scale that is immediately on the left of the zero
mark of the vernier scale.
o Look for the lines from the main and vernier scales that form a straight line
and take number from the vernier scale. Remember this number is in mm so
you need to change it to centimetres
o Add both readings (1 & 2) to get the length of your object
 A vernier caliper can have a zero error:

o a positive zero error in which a caliper shows a reading greater than zero even
when its jaws are firmly closed and
o a negative zero error which occurs when the zero of the vernier scale appears
on the left side of the main scale zero with the jaws are firmly closed
 When using an instrument with either error, we first note the value of the error then
take the measurement and finally subtract the value of the error from the measurement
to get the true dimensions of the object
Task Questions
1. Now try the following to see if you got it!
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2. Find the readings of the vernier caliper below. If you encounter any difficulties or have
forgotten how to read a vernier caliper, you can revisit how to read a vernier caliper section
above. We shall do the first one together and you can try out the remaining ones.
a)
Error + 0.03 cm Reading 1.0 6cm Actual reading 1.06 cm  0.03 cm = 1.03cm
b)
Error …………. Reading ……………. Actual reading ……………
c)
d)
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Error …………. Reading ……………. Actual reading …………….
e)
3. Find the readings of the vernier caliper below. We shall do the first two together and you
can try out the remaining ones.
a)
Error  0.03cm Reading 0.06cm Actual reading 0.06  ( 0.03cm) = 0.09cm
(Remember we reads negative error from the right to left on the vernier scale, i.e. 10 becomes
0; 9 becomes  0.01cm; 8 becomes  0.02cm and so on).
b)
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c)
d).
Error …………. . Reading ……………. Actual reading ……………..
e)
f)
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g)
References
https://www.wikihow.com/Use-a-Vernier-Caliper
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernier_scale
https://www.miniphysics.com/how-to-read-a-vernier-caliper.html
https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/using-vernier-calipers-and-micrometers-7502850
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Lesson 4 Measuring Length – Micrometer Screw Gauge
Introduction
Welcome to lesson 4 in unit 1. In lesson threes we discussed vernier caliper. In this lesson,
we will focus on the micrometer screw gauge, where we will discuss the accuracy of
micrometer, the parts of a micrometer and the function of some of the parts. We will also
discuss how to take readings from a micrometer such as how to read the main scale, how to
read the thimble scale and how to determine the zero error.
Learning objectives
 Measure small lengths accurately using micrometre screw gauge

 Identify sources of errors in measurement of length from a given measuring
instrument.
Lesson Content
4.1 How a Micrometer Screw Gauge Works
4.2 Errors When Using the Micrometer screw Gauge
Social context
What if you wanted to measure the diameter of your own hair? Or The thickness of this page?
Which instrument would you use? A ruler? A vernier caliper? Unfortunately these would not
give any accurate measurements. But luckily we have the micrometer screw gauge!
A micrometer screw gauge is an instrument that measures very very small lengths…. perhaps
that is why it is called a MICRO (small) meter screw gauge. Compared to the other
instruments we have already seen it has an accuracy of 0.001cm, a high accuracy indeed.
Below is the diagram of a micrometer.
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Thimble
Sleeve
Figure 22: A Micrometer Screw Gauge
Adapted from: https://physicsnoteonline.blogspot.com/p/micrometer-screw-gauge-

micrometer-screw.html
The anvil and spindle: Both of these are to hold the measured object.
The sleeve: has the main scale on it. Each division on the main scale is equivalent to 0.5 mm.
The range of the main scale is often from 0 – 25 mm.
Figure 23: The scale of a Micrometer Screw Gauge
Thimble: The scale on it is called the thimble scale. Each division on the thimble scale
represents 1/100mm or simply 0.01mm.
The ratchet knob: The function of the ratchet knob is to exert appropriate amount of
pressure on the measured object so that the object is not compressed.
The lock: Its function is to tighten and hold the spindle stationary so that a reading can be
taken easily.
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The frame: a C-shaped body that holds the anvil and sleeve in constant relation to each
other.
4.1 How a Micrometer Screw Gauge Works
A micrometer scale comprises a main scale and a thimble scale. The reading of a micrometer
is equal to the sum of the main scale and the thimble scale. The reading of the main scale is
the number on the sleeve scale that is closest to the edge of the thimble. For example, in
the micrometer below, the edge of the thimble shows that the reading of the mains scale is 5.5
mm.
Figure 24: How to Read a Micrometer Screw Gauge
Let’s see what we have on the thimble scale. Remember we established that each division on
the thimble scale represents 0.01 mm or 1/100mm. The reading of the thimble scale is taken
as the number that is in line with the straight line (the datum line) on the main scale. In this
case, the reading of the thimble scale is 0.28mm or 28/100mm.
As we mentioned before, the reading of a micrometer is equal to the sum of the main scale
and the thimble scale. Therefore, the reading is 5.5 + 0.28 = 5.78 mm.
If you want know more about how to read a micrometer screw gauge, you can visit this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=StBc56ZifMs
4.2 Errors When Using the Micrometer screw Gauge

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As all other measuring instruments, micrometers are also subjected to zero error. When the
anvil and spindle are firmly closed, the reading of the micrometer should be 0.00mm.
However, in some micrometers, the reading does not start from zero and we call this zero
error. Just like a vernier, micrometers also get to have either a positive or a negative error and
these are treated the same way we treated them with verniers as we shall see below.
4.2.1 Positive error
Figure 25: Micreometer Screw Gauge with a Positive Error
Let’s see what the image above tells us. The reading is slightly higher than zero. This is a
positive zero error. The reading of the main scale is zero and the reading of the thimble scale
is 0.02mm. The zero error is +0.02mm. This means that if we use this instrument, our reading
will be increased by 0.02mm so we will need to remove it from the measurement we make.
4.2.2 Negative error
Figure 26: Micrometer Screw Gauge with a Negative Zero Error
The reading of the thimble scale above is 0.47mm. However, this is not the zero error. If you
still remember, the negative zero error must be read from zero backwards. In this case, the
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zero error is 0.03mm. This means that the thimble needed to have moved 3 steps forward
to reach zero, but it did not reach zero. As a result our reading is going to begin 3 steps
behind and will finish 3 steps before the actual reading. Hence we need to add back the three
steps to this reading. In general; the correct reading of a micrometer is equal to the reading
obtained minus zero error.
For example:
If the reading obtained is 2.34 mm, the zero error is +0.02 mm, then the correct
reading is 2.34  (+0.02), which is equal to 2.32 mm.
If the reading obtained is 2.34 mm and the zero error is 0.03 mm, then the correct reading
is 2.34  ( 0.03), minus a negative become plus, and the answer is 2.37 mm.
Summary
Having gone through this lesson, we now know that:
 a micrometer screw gauge measures very mall lengths

 It has an accuracy of 0.001cm
 It can have either a positive or negative error
 These are corrected by subtracting their values from the measurement made to get the
true value of the dimensions of the object measured
Task Questions
The diagram of on the left shows the reading on the micrometer screw gauge when the
spindle touches the anvil.
The diagram on the right shows the reading on the micrometer screw gauge when the object o
be measured is placed between the spindle and the anvil.
Record all your measurements and corrected measurement in mm in the space below.
a)
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Zero Error: _______________ Observed Reading: __________________
Corrected Reading: _________________
b)
c)

68
d)
e)
f)
69
g)
References
California
70
Lesson 5 Measurements of Time
Introduction
Welcome to lesson five. In the previous two lessons we have been looking at some
instruments that measure length. In this lesson we will look at the instruments that we use to
measure time: the stopwatch. We will discuss the accuracy of stopwatches and how to take
readings from a stopwatch.
Learning objectives
 measure time accurately using stop clock/watch

 estimate the accuracy of a given time measuring instrument
 identify sources of errors in measurements of time
 determine the period of a pendulum
Lesson Content
4.1 Units of Time
4.4 The Period of a Pendulum
4.2 Instruments used to measure time
4.3 Using Stop Clock/Watch to Measure Time
Time is measured using events which repeat themselves at fixed intervals. Such events are
said to be periodic.
e.g.
 Earth spinning about its axis which takes a fixed period of 24 hours
 Earth revolving about the sun which takes affixed period of 365 days
 Water dripping through a pinhole at the bottom of a vessel
4.1 Units of Time
Sl unit of time (t) is the second (s)
Other units
 1 year - time the earth takes to revolve round the sun
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 1 day - time the earth takes to complete one rotation about its axis. = 24 hours
 1 hour = 60 minutes
 1 minute = 60 seconds
4.2 Instruments used to measure time
Time can be measured by using the following instruments:
 analogue stopwatch
 digital stopwatch
 clocks
 watches etc
4.3 Using Stop Clock/Watch to Measure Time
A typical laboratory stopwatch has an accuracy of 0.01 seconds and it looks like the on
below.
Examples
When a stop watch reads as shown on the diagram below;
The time shown is 23seconds 34centiseconds and it is written in seconds as 23.34s
i.e. 23s + 0.34s = 23.34s
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When a stop watch reads as shown on the diagram below;
The time shown is 5 minutes, 45seconds and 23centiseconds and it is written in seconds as
345.23s i.e. (5 x 60s) + 45s + 0.23s =345.23s
4.4 The Period of a Pendulum
Social context
Did you know that playground swings can provide a good lesson in physics—as well as lots
of fun? We see pendulums in other areas of our lives as well, such as in grandfather (also
known as longcase) clocks. Have you seen one before?
Figure 27: A Typical Pendulum Clock
Source: https://www.amazon.com/Seiko-Pendulum-Clock-Mahogany-
Finish/dp/B0027FGBHW
The back-and-forth motion of a swing is an example of a pendulum. The swinging motion of

a pendulum is due to the force of gravity generated by the earth. In the example of the
playground swing, the swing is supported by chains that are attached to fixed points at the top
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of the swing set. When the swing is raised and released, it will move freely back and forth
due to the force of gravity on it. The swing continues moving back and forth without any
extra outside help until friction (between the air and the swing and between the chains and the
attachment points) slows it down and eventually stops it.
A simple pendulum consists of

a small bob (mass) attached to
one end of a string and
suspended from a rigid
support.
The distance between the point

of suspension and the centre of
the bob is the length (l) of the
pendulum. When the
pendulum bob is at rest the
string is vertical. If the bob is
pulled through a small
distance, known as the
angular amplitude (A), and
then released, it will move to
and fro for a while before coming to rest. One complete to and fro motion is one oscillation.
The diagrams below show one complete oscillation.
The time taken to complete one oscillation is called the Period (T) of the pendulum measured
in seconds.
time taken for a number of oscillations

Period(T ) 
Number of oscillations.
For example, this is the time it takes a child being pushed in a swing to be pushed and then
return back for another push. The period of the pendulum depends on the force of gravity, as
well as the length of the pendulum- the shorter the length the shorter the period and vice
versa.
The number of complete cycles/oscillations/full swings per second is the frequency (f) of the
pendulum measured in Hertz (Hz).
74
1 1
𝑓= & 𝑇=
𝑇 𝑓
4.4.1 An Experiment to Determine the of Period of a Pendulum
Procedure:
1. Set up the experimental apparatus as shown above.

2. Measure the length of the pendulum using a ruler to 100 cm.
3. Displace the bob through a small angle  - about 10 to 15 cm and release it to set the
bob in motion.
4. Using a stop-watch record the time (t15) in seconds it takes the bob to make 15
oscillations.
5. Repeat step 4 about 5 times
6. Record all of your results in a suitable table. Include table headers with appropriate
units.
7. Calculate the period T of the pendulum for each attempt and find the average period
Tav.
Attempt 1 2 3 4 5 Average period
Time/s
Period/s
4.4.2 Errors and Precautions in Determining the Period of the Pendulum
The sources of errors in a simple pendulum experiment are the following:
1. Human reaction time error comes in when measuring the period using a stopwatch,
that is, when starting and stopping the stopwatch. This error can be minimised by
repeating the experiment many times and taking the average of a couple of trials.
Another option would be to measure the time for, say 20 or more uninterrupted
oscillations and then calculate the period of one oscillation.
2. Instrument zero errors - Analog stopwatch might have zero error. Remember we have
discussed at length in the previous lessons how to minimise the effects of zero errors.
The precautions to take in determining the period of the pendulum are:

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1. The angular amplitude can introduce errors if it is too big. As much as possible small
angles must be used. The amplitude must not exceed 30 angular degrees.
2. The friction between the swinging bob and the surrounding air is another source of
error. This can be minimised by using a heavier bob than a lighter bob. The shape of
the bob must be spherical to minimise this friction.
Summary
 Time (t) is measured in seconds (s). Its other units include days, years, minutes, hours
etc
 A simple pendulum can be used to make a time measuring device
 The period of a pendulum is the time taken by the pendulum to complete an
oscillation
 The period of a pendulum is affected by:
o the force of gravity. The more the force of gravity, the lower the period
o the length of the pendulum, the longer the pendulum, the longer the period
 A pendulum stops swinging because of friction force caused by the air
Task Questions
1. The figure below shows an oscillating pendulum.
(a) What is meant by:
(i) the period of the pendulum?
______________________________________________________________________ [1]
(ii) an oscillation?
__________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________ [1]
(b) The time, t, taken for 10 oscillations of a pendulum is recorded. This time is then divided
by 10 to give its period, T. Why is this practice more accurate than just recording the time for
1 oscillation to give the period?
__________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________ [2]
(c) State and explain what happens to the period of a pendulum if:
(i) The pendulum is taken to the Moon where there is less gravity.
______________________________________________________________________ [2]
(ii) The mass of the bob is doubled.
______________________________________________________________________ [2]
(iii) The length of the pendulum is increased.
______________________________________________________________________ [2]
References
https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-sources-of-errors-in-a-simple-pendulum-experiment-
and-precautions-to-minimize-them
Science Buddies (2012) Swinging with a Pendulum: A fun physics challenge from Science
Buddies. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bring-science-home-swinging-
pendulum/
77
Lesson 6 Mass and Weight
Introduction
Learning Objectives
 Demonstrate an understanding that mass is a measure of the amount of substance in a

body
 Define weight and its relationship to mass
 Measure mass and weight using appropriate balances
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social context
The instruments shown below are common in everyday lab use. Give the names of the
instruments and explain their uses.
Instrument A
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Source: http://9.mukkg.lebensberatungmitkarten.de/ghy/diagram-of-a-spring-balance.html
Instrument B
source:www.ck-12.org
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Key issues
Relationship between mass and weight
Integration of concepts
Instrument A has a spring which is stretched by a pulling force from the hanging object. It is
operated by the force of gravity. The other instruments operate by balancing a given quantity
of the object.
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. So, instrument B measures mass by a process of
balancing. Mass is measured with an instrument called a balance. Examples of balances
include triple beam balance, electronic balance, lever arm balance, just to mention some of
them. The mass of an object is constant with position or location in the universe. It is always
the same whenever and wherever it is taken. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (Kg).
Now let us try to get a better understanding of weight. Instrument B measures weight by
exerting a pulling force on a spring. A spring balance uses a spring to measure the weight of
an object or to measure the strength of a pulling force. If an object is hung from a spring
balance the reading on the scale indicates that a force is acting. This downward pulling is the
gravitational force and it is exerted on the object on Earth. This pulling force on the object is
called weight. When an object is near the Earth’s surface it is pulled towards the Earth’s
surface by the gravitational force. Weight is the gravitational force exerted on the object by
the Earth or other massive body. Weight is therefore a force and like all other forces is
expressed in the SI unit of newton, N.
The gravitational force acting on an object can be expressed in terms of its strength called
Gravitational Field Strength, g. On Earth the value of the Gravitational Field Strength is
approximately 10N/Kg. The SI unit of Gravitational Field Strength is the Newton per
kilogram (N/Kg).
Therefore the weight, W of an object can be expressed in terms of its mass, m and
gravitational field strength, g acting on it. Both the mass and the gravitational field
strength, g are in their SI units.
W = mg
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Where,
W = weight in newtons (N)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
g = gravitational field strength in N/kg
Weight can also be defined as a force which gives an object a downward acceleration when it
is falling freely near the Earth’s surface. This rate of acceleration is called rate of free fall
and it is also given the symbol g. The value of g on Earth is equal to 10m/s2. It is the same for
all objects no matter what their mass can be.
So, weight, W = downward force = mg.
From our discussion above, the approximate value of g can be written as 10 m/s2 or 10N/Kg.
You can think of g in two ways.
 An object falling freely near the Earth’s surface will accelerate at 10m/s2.
 Each kilogram of mass near the Earth’s surface having a gravitational force of 10N
acting on it.
If an object is taken to the moon it weighs only one sixth as much as on Earth because the
moon is smaller than the Earth.
Difference between Mass and Weight
In everyday life we often use the term weight when we mean mass and for this reason it is
easy to confuse the terms. The confusion is worsened by the fact that mass is measured with
an instrument called a balance by a process we unfortunately call ‘weighing.’
Mass Weight
Amount of matter in an object Force of gravity
SI unit of mass is the kilogramme SI unit is the Newton
Does not change with position Changes with position
Measured using triple beam balance Measured using force meter or spring balance
How do you find weight?

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To find something's weight in newtons, you multiply the mass in kilograms by the
acceleration of gravity in the units of meters/seconds2. For example: Joe Average has a mass
of 63.5 kg and he feels a force of gravity on the Earth = 63.5 kg × 9.8 m/s2 = 623 kg m/s2 =
623 N. His weight is 623 N. The other value in the preceding equation, 9.8 m/s2, is the
acceleration due to gravity close to the Earth's surface. Joe Average's weight at other places
in the universe will be different but his mass will remain the same.
Worked example
A bag of coal has a mass of 10 kg on Earth. The acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s 2 on
Earth and on the moon is 1.6 m/s2.
a) What is its mass on the moon?

b) What is its weight on Earth?
c) What is its weight on the moon?
Solutions
a) W = mg
m = 10 kg (mass does not change)
b) W = mg = 10 kg x 10 N/kg = 100N
c) W = mg = 10 kg x 1.6 N/kg = 16 N
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Lesson 7: Mass, Inertia and Centre of Mass
Objectives
Define inertia and relate it to mass.
Define center of mass.
Determine center of mass of plane laminas.
Perform and explain an experiment to determine the center of mass of an irregular lamina.
Demonstrate and describe factors affecting stability of objects.
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social context
It is the beginning of the term and the schools are reopening. You happen to be hiking with
your school mates in one of the most remote areas of Botswana where public transport is very
scarce. An open van pulls up and you get a ride. You are enjoying the ride standing and
leaning against the rails. Some of your school mates are sitting on the rails.
The van then cruises along the dusty gravel road. After about 5km the driver abruptly stops
and you surge forward. The driver leans out of the window, opens the door and comes out
frowning at you. He shouts at you commanding everybody to sit down. ‘’this vehicle is not
driving smoothly, we can have an accident’’ he says. He says the van is not properly loaded
and the weight keeps it out of control. He makes a thorough assessment to make sure that all
occupants are seated and evenly distributed on the van floor.
He releases the brakes too rapidly and the van shoots forward as you slide backward.
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Key issues
- Stability, center of mass and inertia.
Let us focus our attention on the motion of van in the scenario given. When the van suddenly
stopped you were pushed forward; when the van took off suddenly you were pushed
backward. Those are observed effects of inertia.
Inertia
Inertia is the tendency of a body to change its state of motion, that is to say, to remain at rest
if it was at rest or continue moving (with constant velocity in a straight line) if it was moving.
Inertia is articulated in Newton’s first law of motion (which can also be called the law of
inertia) which states that if forces on an object are balanced then:
 If it is at rest, it stays at rest

 If it is moving, it keeps on moving at a constant speed in a straight line
The larger the mass of a body the larger its inertia and the more difficult it is to change its
state of rest or uniform motion or change in its direction of travel. Mass therefore is a
measure of an object’s state of inertia. Inertia makes it difficult to move a big object as
compared to a small one.
Centre of Gravity
Once more let us now focus our attention on the driver’s concern about the van not properly
loaded and the weight keeping the truck out of control. While you were sitting on one side on
the rails you were making the van unstable. Having more people on one side of the van
might create a turning effect. When you were standing and others sitting on the metal rails
you were contributing to the loss of balance of the truck. The truck could easily topple as it
turns. This is because the standing occupants raise the center of gravity of the truck making it
unstable.
Every occupant of the truck has a small gravitational force acting on him and together these
forces act like a single pulling at just one point. This point we call the center of gravity (cg)
or center of mass (cm). The center of gravity is a point through which the whole weight of
the object seems to pass through. So, when everybody was seated the whole weight of the
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van was concentrated at one point making the van more stable. The driver wanted even
distribution of the weight of occupants so that the center of gravity was located in the middle
of the truck. By so doing this would keep the truck in a more balanced position.
The driver instructed all occupants to remain seated and evenly distributed on the van
floor and when you were seated the van remained stable. The position of the center of
gravity of a body affects whether or not it topples easily. This is what we call stability.
The center of gravity of a regular object is at the intersection of its lines of symmetry. The
center of gravity of an irregular thin sheet of material (lamina) is found using the plumb line
method.
Finding the center of mass of an irregular lamina
Three or more small holes are drilled in the lamina and then suspend it from one hole with a
pin or nail as shown above. A plumb line is suspended from the pin and its position is marked
with a cross. The lamina is then hung from a second hole and the position of the plumb line is
marked again. In each case the center of gravity must be vertically below the point of
suspension, so the center of gravity must be where the two lines cross. A repeat can also be
done with a third hole.
Factors affecting the stability of a body:
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 Lowering the centre of mass
 Widening the base of the object
Summary
 Weight is the force due to the pull of gravity. It is measured in newtons (N) by a
spring balance and it varies from place to place
 Mass is the amount of matter in an object. It can be measured in kilograms (kg)
 A mass of 1kg on Earth weighs about 10N
 Mass has reluctance to change of motion called inertia
 Mass can be defined as a measure of inertia Newton’s first law: every mass stays at
rest or moves at constant speed in a straight line unless a resultant force acts on it
 Centre of mass: is a point on a body at which the whole mass of the body seems to
be concentrated.
 Centre of gravity: is a point where the whole weight of the body seems to be
concentrated.
Task Questions
1. Space research organization plans to send astronauts to Mars to examine rocks on its
surface. The organization will produce a report containing information about conditions on
Mars.
(a) (i) The gravitational field strength on the surface of Mars is 3.7 N / kg. Calculate the
weight on Mars of a rock of mass 0.50 kg.
[2]
(ii) A rock dropped on Mars falls to the surface. State the acceleration of the falling rock.
Assume that there is no air resistance on Mars.
[1]
(iii) Calculate the kinetic energy of a 0.50 kg rock as it strikes the surface at a speed of 3.2
m/s.
[3]
(b) While still on the surface of Mars, the astronauts will measure the mass of each rock
collected. The diagrambelow shows two devices for measuring mass.
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(i) When the two devices are used on Mars, they will give different readings for the mass of
the same rock. Explain why. [3]
(ii) State which device will give the correct reading for the mass. [1]
2. A car is overtaking a bus. Suddenly a cow emerges from the bush crossing the road in a
hurry.
a) Which vehicle is likely to stop first if the drivers of the two vehicles suddenly apply the
brakes at the same time?
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________ (1)
Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________ (1)
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(b) Why is it necessary for passengers of a vehicle to wear seat belts?
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________ (1)
3. The gravitational field strength on Earth is 10 N/Kg. An astronaut of mass 50kg takes off
from the Earth and lands on the moon. The gravitational field strength on the moon is 0ne
sixth of that of the Earth.
a) What is the mass of the astronaut on the moon?
___________________________________________________________________________
[1]
b) Calculate the weight of the astronaut on Earth.
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________ (2)
(c) Calculate the weight of the astronaut on the moon.
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ (2)
4. Given a plumb line, ruler, stand, nail and an irregular lamina, describe with the aid of a
clearly labelled diagram how you would find the cm of the irregular lamina.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________ (4)
Reference
Physics for you, Keith Johnson (2001)
Physics for Higher Tier, Stephen Pople (2001)
Complete Physics, Stephen Pople (2009)
http://www.astronomynotes.com/isitacopy.htm
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http://ww.ck-12.org
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Lesson 8: Motion
Learning objectives
Define distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social context
Image a boy has to go to a tuck shop to buy bread. The tuck shop is 50 m away from his
home. To reach the tuck shop he has to move from his home and walk 50 m in the west
direction. Fig. 1.1 shows a map showing the position of his home and the tuck shop.
Fig. 1.1
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One morning he left late to the tuck shop, so he ran because he ran because the tuck shop was
just about to close. When he returned from shop he walked slowly back home.
Key issues
 Walking 50 m to the tuck shop

 Walking to the West
 running to running to the tuck shop
Let us consider the above scenarios one by one. The scenarios will help us define the
quantities that are associated with motion. The space between the boy’s home and the tuck
shop is 50 m.
1. When the boy walks to the tuck shop, he walks 50 m. The 50 m is the distance he covered.
Distance is defined as how much ground an object has covered during its motion.
Symbol used for distance is d
Units of distance is a metre (m)
2. When the boy walked to the tuck shop he walked to the west otherwise any other direction
he will not be able to get to the tuck shop. Remember the boy walks 50 m to reach the tuck
shop and now we are introducing direction. Displacement is defined as how far out of place
an object is, that is its overall change in position including the direction in which the change
occurred. Displacement has both magnitude (size) and direction. The 50 m is the magnitude
and the West is the direction of movement. When the boy is at the tuck shop we can say his
displacement is 50 m to the West.
Symbol for displacement is s; SI Units of displacement is metre (m)
3. When the boy was late he started running which means he took less time because his speed
was higher. When going home he walked slowly so he takes more time to cover the same
distance his speed was lower. Now what is this term speed? Speed is defined as how much
distance is covered in 1 second as given by the equation below.
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distance covered
Speed = time taken
The symbol used for speed is v; Units of speed is metre per second (m/s)
4. When the boy is either going to the tuck shop or coming back from the tuck shop he is
introducing the direction of travel. How fast one travels in a specified direction is called
velocity. The direction in this case is whether he was moving in the direction of the tuck shop
(which is West) or home (which is East). In another words velocity is speed in a specified
direction as given by the equation below.
distance covered
Velocity = in a specified direction
time taken
The symbol used for velocity is v; Units of velocity is metre per second (m/s)
5. The last scenario is when the boy late to the tuck shop, he started running. When one starts
running, the velocity changes (increases). How much this velocity changes in a second is
called acceleration. When the velocity of an object changes we say the object is accelerating.
Acceleration is given by the equation below,
change in velocity
Acceleration = time taken
The symbol used for acceleration is a; Units of acceleration is metre per second squared
(m/s2)
Task Questions
1. Define the terms
i). distance
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ii). acceleration
Answers
i). Distance how much ground an object has covered during its motion
ii). Acceleration is the change in velocity per second
2. What is the difference between distance and displacement?
Answer
Displacement has direction whereas distance does not have direction
Self assessment
1. What is the distinction between speed and velocity?
2. Define the terms
i). displacement
ii). Velocity
Summary
In this lesson we have discussed five main quantities that are used when describing how an
object moves which are distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration. The table
below summarises all these quantities. It is not always easy to recognize the direction part of
the quantities.
Quantity Formula Has Symbol Unit

direction
Distance None  d m
Displacement none  s m
Speed d/t  v m/s
Velocity d/t  v m/s
Acceleration v/t  a m/s2
REFERENCES
93
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-1/Distance-and-Displacement
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-1/Speed-and-Velocity
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LESSON 9
Introduction
Learning objectives
 identify motion with uniform and non-uniform velocity

 identify uniformly accelerated and non-uniformly accelerated motion
 plot and interpret speed-time graphs for uniform motion
 plot and interpret speed-time graphs for non-uniform motion
Social context
A car is waiting at the traffic lights for the green light to come. When the green flashes on the
traffic lights the driver steps on the accelerator and the vehicle starts to move. The velocity
increases until the vehicle reaches 60 km/h. The driver maintains this speed because it’s the
speed limit in the city as shown in the sign below to avoid being charged by the police for
over speeding. I hope you have seen road signs like these along our roads.
Key issues
Velocity increasing from 0 km/h to 60 km/h
velocity kept steady at 60 km/h
1. When the car was stationary at the traffic lights its velocity was zero (0). We can also say
the velocity was constant (or uniform) here.
2. When the traffic lights lit green the car started to move, that is its velocity started to
increase from zero. This change in velocity shows that the velocity is not steady (non-
uniform). Something is said to be non-uniform if it is changing.
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3. When the car reaches 60 km/h the velocity was now kept constant, the car moved with the
same (uniform) velocity.
4. When the velocity changes we are now talking acceleration as we have seen in lesson one.
If the change is uniform then we can say it is a uniformly accelerated motion.
5. Sometimes when the car is not fit it will keep jerking as the driver presses on the
accelerator pedals this results in motion that is not uniformly accelerated (i.e. the change is
velocity is not the same as the car moves along).
The following graphs will interpret these scenarios
Constant velocity graph
The graph shows the motion of an object with a constant velocity. Let us interpret the graph
using a table
Time(s) Velocity Change in velocity

(m/s) (m/s)
0 10 0
1 10 0
2 10 0
3 10 0
4 10 0
5 10 0
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The table shows that the velocity remained at 10 m/s and no change in velocity even though
the time changed.
Non-uniform velocity graphs
The graph shows the motion of an object with a non-uniform velocity. Let us try to interpret
the graph using a table

(m/s) (m/s)
0 0
1 4 4
2 8 4
3 12 4
4 16 4
5 20 4
The table shows that when time increases velocity also increases. The increase in velocity is
constant at 4 m/s every second. Remember acceleration is the change in velocity in a unit
time. So in this case the change in velocity is the acceleration. So the acceleration is constant
at a rate of 4 m/s every second, which is 4 m/s2. If this change in velocity is not constant then
acceleration will also not be constant. We will be saying the object is moving with a non-
uniform acceleration as shown by the graph below.
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When interpreting the graph into a table, following table is given

(m/s) (m/s)
0 0
2 4.0 4.0
4 6.2 2.2
6 7.5 1.3
8 8.0 0.5
10 8.0 0
When considering the first 10 s of the graph, the velocity is increasing. The change in
velocity is also not constant. It changed from 4 m/s every second to zero. This shows that the
acceleration was decreasing showing a non-uniform acceleration.
We can also plot speed-time graphs and interpret them. Let us consider the graph below.
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Source: https://www.tes.com/lessons/GTLU3r_kNnWf9A/speed-and-motion-graphs
The speed-time graph is divided into points from A to E hence making regions. Each section
is explained in the graph. Acceleration and distance travelled can also be determined from
these graphs.
Acceleration is the gradient of the line.
Distance travelled is determined by calculating the area under the graph.
Exercise
The figure below shows the speed-time graph of an object.
Determine the acceleration and the distance travelled in each region
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Region 0A
Acceleration = gradient of the line

𝑣2 − 𝑣1
a= 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
3− 0
= 20− 0
= 0.15 m/s2
Distance travelled is the area under the graph. The shape of the graph under line 0A is a
triangle.
The area of a triangle is given by the equation,

1
A = 2 𝑏ℎ
1 1
So d = 2 𝑏ℎ = 2 𝑥20𝑥3 = 30 m
Region AB

𝑣2 − 𝑣1
a= 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
0− 0
= 60− 40
= 0 m/s2
Distance travelled is the area under the graph. The shape of the graph under line AB is a
rectangle.
The area of a rectangle is given by the equation,
A = LW
So d = L x W = 40 x 3 = 120 m.
Region BC
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𝑣2 − 𝑣1
a= 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
0−3
= 80− 60
= – 0.15 m/s2
The answer shows a negative figure, this means that the object was decelerating.
Distance travelled is the area under the graph. The shape of the graph under line 0A is a
triangle.
The area of a triangle is given by the equation,

1
A = 2 𝑏ℎ
1 1
So d = 2 𝑏ℎ = 2 𝑥20𝑥3 = 30 m
Summary
 In a velocity-time graph, if the gradient of the line is not zero (that is not horizontal)
the motion is non-uniform velocity
 The acceleration from a speed-time graph is determined by calculating the gradient of
the line
 The distance from a speed-time graph is determined by calculating area of the shape
under that line
Task Questons
1. Use the graph below to identify regions (A, B, or C) where motion is uniform velocity and
motion with non-uniform velocity.
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2. The figure below shows a speed-time graph of an object.
Calculate the acceleration and the distance travelled in the regions
i). 0 – 20 s
ii). 20 – 40 s
References
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-4/Meaning-of-Shape-for-a-v-t-
Graph http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age16-
19/Mechanics/Kinematics/text/Non_uniform_acceleration/index.html
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Lesson 10
Introduction
Learning objectives
 use equations of motion in simple calculation
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social context
The diagram below shows the speedometer of a car. It shows the car traveling with a speed of
110 km/h. The speedometer shows the driver his/her speed. For a car to move at that speed
from when it was stationary it has to accelerate so that the speed increases, this is achieved by
stepping on the accelerator pedal. How much one presses on the accelerator determines the
time the vehicle will take to reach the 110 km/h speed of this vehicle. The vehicle speed
determines how fast you can reach your destination.
Source : https://www.yourmechanic.com/article/how-to-replace-a-speedometer-cable-and-
housing-on-most-cars-by-ty-thompson
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Key issues
Acceleration causes increase in speed
Higher speed means less time is taken to reach the destination
For the speed or velocity of a vehicle to increase or decrease, a vehicle has to accelerate or
decelerate. We can also determine the distance covered. All these variables or quantities are
linked by the following equations. We call them equations of motion.
1. v = u + at ……………… equation ①
2. v2 = u2 + 2as ……………… equation ②

1
3. s = ut + 2at2 ……………… equation ③
u+v
4. s = ( )t ……………… equation ④
2
All these equations are used when acceleration is uniform, and is represented by the letter
“a”.
“t” represents the time taken during the changes
“u” represents the initial velocity of the object. Initial velocity is the velocity before the
change occurred, or the starting velocity.
“v” is the final velocity. The velocity of the object after a change has occurred for example
after acceleration.
These equations are used to find any unknown from the situations or changes in motion. To
choose the best equation, list all the given quantities and the asked (unknown) quantity. Then
choose the best equation which have all of them, there should be only one unknown.
Examples
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1. A vehicle accelerates uniformly from rest at rate of 2 m/s2 for 4 s. What is the speed of the
vehicle at 4 s?
Solution
The vehicles is accelerating from rest, that means initially the vehicle was not moving, the
initial velocity is 0 m/s; u = 0 m/s
The vehicle accelerates uniformly at a rate of 2 m/s2. This tells us that a = 2 m/s2.
The duration of the acceleration is 4 s; so t = 4 s.
The question is asking for the speed or velocity after 4 s. So it is the velocity after the change,
hence final velocity, v.
The quantities are; u, a, t and the unknown v. so from the above equations only equation ①
has all the four quantities, so it can be used. Equation ② has two unknowns which are v and
s, so it cannot work. Equations ③ and ④ cannot work as the quantity the question is looking
is not there.
So using equation ① and substituting the variables;
v = u + at
v = 0m/s + (2m/s2 x 4s)
v = 8 m/s
2. An object travelling with a velocity of 10 m/s accelerates uniformly at a rate of 3 m/s2 until
it reaches a velocity of 20 m/s. How far does it travel while accelerating?
Solution
u = 10 m/s
v = 20 m/s
a = 3 m/s2
s=?
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using equation ②
v2 = u2 + 2as
(20m/s)2 = (10m/s)2 + (2x3m/s2xs)
400(m/s)2 = 100(m/s)2 + 6m/s2xs
S = 50 m
SUMMARY
In this lesson we have discussed four equations of motion. These are the equations we use to
describe the motion of an object quantitatively. Depending on which quantities you are given
you use any of the four equation of motion provided the motion is uniformly accelerated.
Four quantities are used initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a), and time taken
(t).
Task Question
1. An object accelerates from rest at a rate of 6 m/s2. Calculate the distance after 15 s.
2. An object travelling with a certain velocity is accelerated for 10 s and it reaches a velocity
of 25 m/s. if the object covers a distance of 175 m, what was the velocity of the object before
acceleration took place?
REFERENCES
https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/motion/graphical-representation-of-motion/
https://slideplayer.com/slide/5875242/
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LESSON 11:
Learning objectives
define g (acceleration due to gravity).
state that acceleration of free fall for a body near earth is constant.
use g in solving problems on motion.
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social context
When you walk after rain there is a high chance that you may slip and fall down. Some fruits
when they are ripe they fall down from trees. When you are holding something and it slips
from your hand it falls down! Why are things falling down and not going up?
Key issues
Things fall down when not supported
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) discovered the law of gravitation. According to the legend,
when he was sitting under an apple tree, an apple fell on his head. He wondered why the
apple was falling down why not fall up. Then he started some experiment and he discovered
the law of gravitation. Objects accelerate towards the earth due to force of gravity. The value
of this acceleration is 10 m/s2. This means when objects fall to the ground their speed
increases by 10 m/s every second. The symbol for acceleration is “g”. We say objects are
falling freely. When objects freely going they are going against the force of gravity, so this
force slows them down. The acceleration due to gravity at this point is –10 m/s2.
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Due this acceleration of free fall, the equations of motion can be used because the
acceleration is constant. The acceleration “a” in the equations of motion is replaced with “g”.
The three equations now become;
1. v = u + gt ……………… equation ①
2. v2 = u2 + 2gs ……………… equation ②

1
3. s = ut + gt2 ……………… equation ③
2
Examples
1. An object falls freely from rest. What is the velocity of the object at 8 s?
Solution
u = 0m/s, g = 10m/s2, t = 8s, v = ?
So using equation ① and substituting the variables;
v = u + gt
v = 0m/s + (10m/s2 x 8s)
v = 80 m/s
2. An object falls from a tall building 20m high. How long does the object take to hit the
ground?
Solution
u = 0 m/s, g = 10 m/s2, s = 20 m, t= ?
using equation ③
1
s = ut + 2gt2
1
20m = (0m/sxt) +( 2x10 m/s2xt2)
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20m = 0 + 5t2m/s2
t2 = 4 s 2
t = √(4 s2)
t=4s
Summary
In this lesson we have learnt that object fall to the ground due to force of gravity. They fall at
a rate of 10 m/s every second. As the object fall they also obey the equations of motion.
When object are freely falling down, g = 10 m/s2.
When objects are going up freely, g = –10 m/s2.
Task Questions
1. A construction worker accidentally drops a brick from a high scaffold.

a). What is the velocity of the brick after 4.0 s?
b). How far does the brick fall during this time?
2. You decide to flip a coin to determine whether to do your physics or English homework
first. The coin is flipped straight up.
a) What is the velocity of the coin at the highest point?
b) If
the coin reaches a high point of 0.25 m above where you released it, what was its initial speed
?
References
http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~blackman/ast104/newtongrav.html
https://www.wlwv.k12.or.us/cms/lib8/OR01001812/Centricity/Domain/1335/BW15%20Test
%20review%20bookwork%20answers.pdf
file:///Users/sndolo/Downloads/https:/www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-
1/Distance-and-Displacement
110
LESSON 12
Learning objectives
describe motion of a body freely falling in air.
understand the meaning of the term “terminal velocity”.
describe qualitatively motion of objects falling in a liquid.
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social context
The diagram below shows a parachutist. When a parachutist drops down from an airplane, he
lands safely on the ground. The parachute ensures that he falls down with a safe speed,
otherwise he would die. When you are in a vehicle and you take your hand out of the window
you feel the air pulling the hand backwards, I hope you have felt that.
Source: http://www.hockerillct.com/16/Science/quizzes/forc/
Key issues
111
A parachutist falls slowly down
The hand is pulled back by air when the vehicle is moving.
When an object falls in the absence of air, we say it is falling freely. In reality objects fall in
the presence of a fluid (liquid or air). So the effect of the fluid is felt which is due to its
resistance (drag).
When an object starts to fall through air, it starts to experience air drag. This drag causes the
acceleration of the object to reduce. Though the acceleration of the object reduces, its
velocity is still increasing because it is still accelerating, but at a lower rate. The acceleration
decreases until it becomes zero. At this point the object’s velocity is no longer increasing (i.e.
it is constant). This constant velocity is called “terminal velocity”.
The object is experiencing two accelerations; acceleration due to gravity “g” which is always
constant as we have seen before, the acceleration of the object which we will call “a”. This
acceleration “a” depends on how much air friction (drag) is acting on the object. More object
velocity results in more air drag which means less acceleration of the object.
The object also experience two opposing forces; force of gravity (its weight) which is also
always constant, and air drag, which we have seen depends on the velocity of the object.
When these two forces eventually become equal, the object reaches terminal velocity as the
acceleration of the object will be zero.
Terminal velocity is the highest constant velocity attainable by an object as it falls through
a fluid.
Let us follow the motion of a stone as it falls through air using a diagram. The diagram shows
the positions of the stone, forces acting on the stone, and how the corresponding quantities
change.
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If the stone falls through a liquid, the same changes occur as it was falling through air, but
since a liquid has more drag (because the particles are closer together, the stone reaches
terminal velocity quicker. This results in a lower terminal velocity. The stone will fall slowly
through the liquid than through air. The diagram below shows the object falling through a
liquid. “W” is the weight of the object and “V” is the drag due to the liquid. The object at this
point is moving with terminal velocity.
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Questions
1. How does the velocity of an object change as the object falls through air from rest?
Answer
Velocity increases from zero until it reaches a constant value, terminal velocity
2. Describe the motion of the object falling through a fluid in terms of its acceleration.
Answer
Acceleration of the object decreases from 10 m/s2 until it reaches zero when the weight of the
object equals drag
3. Define the term terminal velocity.
Answer
The maximum constant velocity reached by an object as it falls through a fluid
Summary
As an object falls through air or a liquid, it experiences an opposing force called drag. As the
weight of the object pulls the object down this drag opposes this pulling force. As a result the
acceleration of the object reduces until it reaches zero. At this point the velocity of the object
has reached its maximum possible value called “Terminal Velocity”.
Task Questions
114
1. How does the velocity of an object change as the object falls through a liquid from rest?
2. Complete the table below by indicating the changes to the quantities if any for an object
falling through a liquid. Tick the correct box ()
Changes
Increases Decreases No change
Weight of object
Liquid drag
Acceleration due to gravity
Acceleration of the object
REFERENCES
https://www.britannica.com/science/terminal-velocity
https://www.universetoday.com/73617/terminal-velocity/
https:///C:/Users/Square/Downloads/P2_Physics_Booklet_E_(Terminal_Velocity___Weight)
_GCSE_Exemplar_Questions_F-H.pdf
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Lesson 13: Effect of Force on Shape and Size-Hooke’s Law
Introduction
Welcome learners to lesson 13. We have come a long way with our learning. In this lesson
we shall continue our journey by looking at the effect of applying force on elastic materials.
Learning objectives
 demonstrate that force may cause change in shape/size of objects

 determine the relationship between load and extension
 plot, draw and interpret extension-load graphs and describe the associated
experimental procedure
 recognise the significance of the term “Limit of Proportionality” for an extension -
load graph and use proportionality in simple calculations
Lesson Content
13.1 Hooke’s Law
13.2 The Spring Constant
Social context
When it comes to stretching materials, we can say we have three types of materials:
1. Those that do not stretch at all such as rocks, paper, glass etc. – inelastic/
brittle materials
2. Those that stretch for good even when the stretching force is removed such as plastic
– plastic materials
3. Those that stretch and go back to their original shape and size when the stretching
force is removed – elastic materials.
When we apply a force to a spring, it stretches. Sometimes we call this force the load. If we
apply double the force, it stretches twice as much, so long as we don't over-do it.
13.1 Hooke’s Law
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So far, this is pretty obvious. Now let's look at it in more detail! We measure the original
length (lo) of the spring when we start. We then add loads on it so that it stretches. As it
stretches, we measure the new length (l1) produced by the added force. We then determine
the extension (e) – that is the difference between the new length and the original length.
Extension = New length – Original length
Figure 28: Extension on a Spring
Source: https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/980980/view/hooke-s-law-illustration
The more load/force we put on the spring, the longer it becomes. To be more precise, when
we double the load, the increase in length, i.e. the extension, doubles. When we triple the
force, the extension also triples and so on. When this happens we say that the extension is
directly proportional to the force/load.
Also, when we remove the loads from the spring it should go back to its original length and
shape provided we did not put too much force on it than it can handle. In this situation we say
that we have not exceeded the elastic limit or the limit of proportionality.
When the two conditions above are satisfied, we say the spring obeys Hooke’s Law; which
states that:
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The extension is directly proportional to the stretching force (load) provided the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded.
But what would happen to the spring if we keep on adding more stretching force on it? If we
exceed the elastic limit, the spring will stretch and never go back to its original shape and size
when the stretching force is removed. It becomes permanently stretched. We say is
permanently deformed. If we continue to stretch it, it will reach he yield point where it will
now break under more stress.
Figure 29: The Graph of Load vs Extension
Source: https://mechanical-engg.com/gallery/image/2455-stress-strain-curve/
The elastic limit is where the graph departs from a straight line. If we go past it, the spring
won't go back to its original length. When we remove the force, we're left with a permanent
extension.
Below the elastic limit, we say that the spring is showing "elastic behaviour": the extension
is proportional to the force, and it'll go back to it's original length when we remove the force.
Beyond the elastic limit, we say that it shows "plastic behaviour". This means that when a
force is applied to deform the shape, it stays deformed when the force is removed.
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13.2 The Spring Constant
You must have noticed that some springs are easier to stretch than others. How do we explain
this? This is due to the stiffness of the spring which is known as the spring constant - a
measure of the stiffness of a spring up to its limit of proportionality or elastic limit. The
higher the spring constant, the stiffer the spring. The spring constant is different for different
elastic objects. The spring constant will determine the amount of forces needed to produce a
certain extension in each spring. i.e.: according to Hooke’s law;
𝐅 ∝𝐞
Therefore, 𝐅 = 𝐤𝐞
Where: F – stretching force/load (N), k – spring constant (N/m) and e – the extension (m).
This equation works as long as the elastic limit (the limit of proportionality) is not exceeded.
The spring constant, k, is found by carrying out an experiment. For example, the unloaded
length of a spring lo is measured. Different numbers of slotted masses are added to the spring
and its new length ln is measured each time. The extension is the new length minus the
unloaded length (𝑒 = ln  lo). The gradient of this force-extension graph before the limit of
proportionality is equal to the spring constant.
For further reading on this experiment you can visit:

https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/z9hk3k7/revision/4
Examples
Let us see how we can use Hooke’s law in solving some problems.
1. The diagram below shows a spring before and after different loads were attached to it.
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What is the length L in (c)?
Answer
We can do this in two ways. We shall look at those two ways now.
Method 1
In this method, we will use Hooke’s law to extrapolate the data to get us to the answer.
Step 1. Determine lo from the diagram – 5cm - from spring (a). Write it in the first row under
length. Write its corresponding load - 0N - as there is no load yet and extension – 0cm - as
there was no increase in the length of the spring yet – in the respective rows.
Step 2. The second spring (b) shows us that a load of 3N was added to the spring. We write
this in row 2 under load column. This load made the length to increase by 2cm – extension -
to 7cm – new length….can you find these figures in the table below?
Step 3. From the two steps above, we can conclude that every time a load of 3N is added to
the spring the length increases by 2cm…then we can complete the table to arrive at the
load/length/extension in question as shown below.
Load /N Length/cm Extension/cm
0 5 0
3 7 2
6 9 4
9 11 6
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12 13 8
L = 13cm
Method 2
In this method, we will use Hooke’s law directly to get us to the answer.
Hooke’s law says:
𝑭 ∝ 𝒆 – Mathematically this is a ratio that says:
F : e
From diagram (a) and (b) our F = 3 N, our e is 7 cm – 5 cm = 2 cm
We will use this information to find the extension caused by 12 N which we will later use to
find the length caused by the 12 N.
So:
F:e
3 N : 2 cm
12N : e cm
3e = 24 Ncm
24 𝑁𝑐𝑚
𝑒 =
3𝑁
e = 8 cm
(Do you recognise this figure in the table?)
Therefore, our L n = lo + e
= 5 cm + 8 cm
= 13 cm
Do you recognise this number again in the table?
2. In a spring experiment the results were as follows:
Force (N) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Length
50 58 70 74 82 90 102 125
(mm)
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Extension
(mm)
What is the length of the spring when unstretched?
Unstretched length ________________________
Complete the ‘Extension’ row of the table
(i) Plot a graph of extension (y-axis) against force (x-axis)
122
Circle the anomalous point.
Suggest what could have caused this anomalous point.
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What do you think the reading should have been?
Suggested reading ________________________________
Mark the limit of proportionality on your graph (elastic limit).
What load would give an extension of 30mm?
Load___________________________________
What would be the spring length for a load of 4.5N?
spring length _________________________
Use your graph to determine a value for the spring constant k in this example. Show clearly
on the graph how you get this value.
K____________________________
Solution
Unstretched length = 50mm
The ‘Extension’ row
Force (N) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Length
50 58 70 74 82 90 102 125
(mm)
Extension 50 – 50 58 - 50 70 - 50 74 - 50 82 – 50 90 – 50 102 – 50 125 – 50

(mm) =0 =8 = 20 = 24 = 32 = 40 = 52 = 75
(i) Graph of extension against force
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Extension/mm
Force/N
(ii) Parallax error when taking length readings from the meter rule.
(iii) Suggested reading 16cm
Load = 3.8N
Lo = 50mm;
4.5N gives an extension of 36mm
We know that: Ln = lo + e
= 50 mm + 36 mm
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spring length = 86 mm
The spring constant k is given by the inverse of the gradient of the line within the limit of
proportionality range. i.e:
1
𝑘=
𝑚
𝑦 2 − 𝑦1
Where m is: 𝑚 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
28𝑚𝑚 − 4𝑚𝑚
𝑚 =
3.5𝑁 − 0.5𝑁
24𝑚𝑚
𝑚 =
3. 𝑁
𝑚 = 8𝑚𝑚/𝑁
1
𝑘=
8𝑚𝑚/𝑁
𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑵/𝒎𝒎
Summary
In this lesson we established that:
 elastic materials return to their original shape when the forces on them are removed
 Plastic materials retain their new shape, when forces are removed
 Hooke’s Law - The extension of a spring or wire is directly proportional to the force
applied provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded
 Spring constant is the gradient of the force (x- axis) against extension (y-axis) and its
unit is N/m
 The limit of proportionality is the point beyond which Hooke’s law is no longer true
when stretching a material
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 The elastic limit is the point beyond which the material you are stretching becomes
permanently stretched so that the material does not return to its original length when
the force is removed
Task Questions
Now try the following questions to see if you got what we were doing above.
1. The diagram shows a spring before and after different loads were attached to it.
What is the mass m?
m =________________________
2. A spring is 8 cm. A weight of 6 N extended the spring by 3 cm.
If the limit of proportionality is not exceeded, what is the weight required to make the length
of the spring 24 cm?
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W = ________________________
3. An experiment is carried out to measure the extension of a rubber band for different loads.
The results are shown below.
Fill in the figure missing in the table?
4. A student carried out an experiment to find the spring constant of a steel spring. The
apparatus is shown in the diagram below.
The student recorded the unstretched length l0 of the spring. Then she added loads W to the
spring, recording the new length l each time. The readings are shown in the table below.
W/N l/mm e/mm
0 30
1 32
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2 33
3 36
4 39
5 40
6 42
(a) What is the original length lo of the spring?
lo = __________________________________________[1]
(b) Calculate the extension e of the spring produced by each load, using the equation
e = (l – l0);
Record the values of e in the table. [2]
(c) Plot the graph of e/mm (y-axis) against W/N (x-axis). [4]
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(d) Draw the best-fit straight line for the points you have plotted. [1]
(e) Calculate the gradient, G, of line. Show clearly on the graph how you obtained the
necessary information.
130
G = _______________________________ [3]
(f) Calculate the spring constant of the spring, k, using the equation:
1
𝑘=
𝐺
k = __________________________ [1]
References
https://www.aimcoil.com/the-physics-of-springs-how-manufacturers-design-springs-that-
work/
http://www.darvill.clara.net/enforcemot/springs.htm
https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/980980/view/hooke-s-law-illustration
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Lesson 14: Turning Effect of Force - Moments
Introduction
Hello learner, we meet again for yet another interesting topic in forces; the turning effect of
force. This topic takes you through what happens to objects that turn around – even 10 – when
force is applied on them.
Learning Objectives
 describe the moment of a force in terms of its turning effect, and give everyday
examples e.g. levers
 perform and describe an experiment to verify the principle of moments
 use the concept of moment of force in simple calculations
Lesson Content
14.1 Moments
14.2 Determining the Direction of Moments
14.3 Principle of Moments
Social context
 It is easier to open a gate by pushing it far away from the hinge

 It is almost impossible to undo a bolt with your hands that is why you need a spanner.
 You can play a see saw game with your eight year old brother/sister and they can lift
you up
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What can they do to both enjoy the game?
Let us look at the concept that can help us explain all the above points.
All the above scenarios involve a situation in which a force is applied on an object and the
object turns around or moves in a circular manner about a fixed point called a fulcrum or a
pivot. (Please note that the turning may not necessarily be a 360o turning, even a 1o turning is
still a turning!) We call this turning effect a moment of a force.
14.1 Moments
When undoing a nut fastened to a screw by hand one realises that the amount of force
required is a lot greater than when undoing the same nut using a spanner. The spanner
increases the distance between the fulcrum and the line of action of the force, thus for the
same force a greater moment is obtained.
Figure 30: The effect of distance on the turning effect of force
Source: http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/physics/turning-effect-forces.html
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The amount of turning that a force will produce depends on two factors:
 the amount of force applied on the object

 the perpendicular distance from where the force is applied to the pivot or point where
the object will turn
This implies that turning effect of a force or the moment of a force is the product of the force
multiplied by the distance.
i.e. Moment = F xs
Where:
F is the force (in N)
s is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot (in m).
Therefore, its SI unit is the newton - metre (Nm)
NB: Moments DO NOT have a symbol so we always write it in full.
Other examples of turning effect of force:
 A person pushing a swing will make the swing rotate about its pivot
 A worker applies a force to a spanner to rotate a nut
 A person removes a bottle’s cork by pushing down the bottle opener’s lever
 A force is applied to a door knob and the door swings open about its hinge
 A driver can turn a steering wheel by applying a force on its rim
14.2 Determining the Direction of Moments
Moments are vector quantities (have magnitude and direction) and they act about a point in a
clockwise or anticlockwise direction as shown below.
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A B
Figure 31: The direction of Moments
How then do we determine these directions?
I n the above example, objects A and B are sitting on the beam, on either side of the fulcrum,
each applying a downward force on the beam. Force A causes an anticlockwise moment that
acts downward on the left, and force B causes a clockwise moment that acts downwards on
the right. How do we know this?
To determine these directions this is what you do:
 If force B was not sitting on the beam, in which direction would force A make the
beam to turn? Do the same for force B. Or
 Trace the path of each force to make a circle always moving towards the pivot as
shown below.
Figure 32: How to Determine the Direction of Moments
Examples
135
For each situation below, determine the moment of the force, and state the direction in which
it acts.
4. A force of 75 N is used to turn the spanner in the diagram. If the distance between the force
and the nut is 10 cm calculate the moment of the force.
Answers
Here are the answers to the questions. We have used the formula:
Moment = force × distance:
Moment = 4 N × 0·4 m
Moment = 1·6 Nmanticlockwise
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Moment = 4 N × 0·25 m
Moment = 1·0 Nmanticlockwise
Moment = 5 N × 0·50 m
Moment = 2·5 Nmclockwise
4. Moment = Force x distance
= 75N × 0.1 m
=7.5 N m
14.3 Principle of Moments
This principle can be explained by considering two people on a seesaw.
Figure 33: Demonstrating the Principle of Moments
Source: http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/physics/turning-effect-forces.html
Look at the weights of person A and that of person B and their distances away from the pivot.
What do you think will happen to the seesaw? In which direction is it going to move? To
answer these questions, let us first determine the moments of each person.
137
Person A Person B
Moment = 500N × 2m Moment = 1000N × 1m
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐍𝐦 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐍𝐦
From the calculations, we can learn that much as the weights of the two people are not the
same, they can have the same turning effect. This is made possible by their distances from the
turning point. So what effect will this have on the seesaw? With the same moment on either
side of the pivot, it means that the seesaw will remain stable/balanced/in equilibrium – not
moving up or down.
When a system is stable or balanced it is said to be in equilibrium as all the forces acting on
the system cancel each other out. In this situation, there are no clockwise or anticlockwise
moments. This is the principle of moments and it states that:
In equilibrium Total Sum of Anticlockwise Moment = Total Sum of Clockwise Moment
Examples
Now let us see how to apply the principle of moments.
1. What weight W must be hung on the ruler to balance it?
100 N
W
2. A uniform metre stick with its centre of gravity at C is supported on a pivot with weights
attached on either side as shown in the diagram. What is the mass of the metre stick?
138
3. Calculate the clockwise and anticlockwise moments, to see if the beam would balance. If
unbalanced, add an additional weight to balance the beam.
0.4m 0.5m s
1N 4N 7N
a)
b)
4m 3m 1m
W 3N 16N
Answers
1. Principle of moments says clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
So
100N x 30cm = W x 20cm

3000𝑁𝑐𝑚
W= 20𝑐𝑚
W= 150 N
139
2. Let us look at this carefully: to find the mass of the metre stick we need to find its weight W
first. We know that the weight of an object act through its centre of gravity, C, in this case.
w
Now let’s identify our variables:
Anticlockwise forces Clockwise forces
Forces distances Moments Forces distances Moments
4N 40cm* 4N×40cm = 160Nm 12N 15cm 12N ×15cm = 180Nm
W 10cm W ×10cm =10WNm
Total moments 160Nm + 10WNm Total moments 180Nm
*40cm remember the distance is from the force to the pivot.
The principle of moments says that at equilibrium:
The anticlockwise moment = The clockwise moment
160𝑁𝑚 + 10𝑐𝑚𝑊 = 180𝑁𝑚
10cmW = 180Nm  160Nm

20𝑁𝑚
𝑊 =
10𝑐𝑚
W = 2N
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
2𝑁
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 10𝑁/𝐾𝑔
Mass = 0.2 kg
140
3. a) The principle of moments says:
( 0.8m × 1N) + (0.5m × 4N) = s × 7N
0.8𝑁𝑚 + 2.0𝑁𝑚 = 7𝑠𝑁𝑚
2.8Nm = 7sNm
2.8𝑁𝑚
𝑠 = 7𝑁
s = 4N
b) The principle of moments says:
(7m × WN) + (3m × 3N) = 1m× 16N
7𝑊𝑁𝑚 + 9𝑁𝑚 = 16𝑁𝑚
7W = 16Nm  9Nm
7𝑁𝑚
𝑊 = 7𝑚
W = 1N
Summary
In this lesson we learnt that force can cause objects to move in a turning manner.
 The turning effect of a force is known as the moment of the force

 The amount of turning that occurs depends on:
o the amount of force (F) applied and
o the perpendicular distance (s) between the pivot and the place where the force
is applied i.e. Moments = Force × distance
 The SI unit of moments is therefore the Newton meter (Nm)
 Moments can either be clockwise or anticlockwise
 The principle of moment says that: When the object is at equilibrium, the sum of
Clockwise moments equals to the sum of anticlockwise moment
141
Task Questions
1. A spanner gives a turning effect to undo a nut.
(a) Complete the sentence.
The turning effect of a force is called the .................................................... of the force.
(b) The diagram shows a spanner being used.
Axis of rotation
Nut
Spanner
Force (= 20 N)
20
cm
Calculate the spanner’s turning effect in newton metres.
Show clearly how you work out your answer.
Turning effect = _______________________
c) Give two ways in which you can increase the spanner’s turning effect.
1 _____________________________________________________________________
2 _____________________________________________________________________
2. The diagram shows a simple machine for lifting water from a river.
142
operator pushes downwards
here
1.5m
3m
weight of bucket of water
=200N
a) State the principle of moments
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
b) Calculate:
i) the moment of the bucket of water. (Show your working.)
Moment_______________________
ii) the downwards force the operator must use to balance the moment of the bucket of
water?
Moment______________________________
3. The diagram below shows a beam balanced about point A by a load and a force F.
143
What is the magnitude of F?
F =._______________________
References
https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/ztjpb82/revision/1
https://www.gcse.com/fm/moments4.htm
http://olevelphysicsblog.blogspot.com/2010/07/turning-effect-of-forces.html
http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/physics/turning-effect-forces.html
144
Lesson 15: Effect of Force on Motion
Learning Objectives
 describe ways in which a force may cause change in motion of a body

 demonstrate the effects of friction on motion of a body
 perform simple calculations in cases where there is friction
 use the relationship F = ma in calculations.
Lesson Content
15.1 Effect of Force on a Stationary Object
15. 2 Effect of Force on an Object that is Already Moving
15.1 Effect of Force on a Stationary Object
Social Context
At the bus rank, the combi you are in fails to start. You and one more passenger volunteer to
push start it. You push at maximum strength but the combi does not move. A few more
passengers get off to help push the combi. With more people pushing, the combi starts
moving but the speed is not enough to start it. Some more passengers get off to join the
pushing; now the combi picks up speed and some few meters ahead the combi starts.
Key Issues
Notice the following:
 When only the two you were pushing, the combi did not move.
 When more people joined you, and there were fewer people in the combi the combi
stated to move but too slow to get it to start.
 When even more people helped, the combi moved fast enough to start.
 More people getting off the combi also means that the mass of the combi reduces
hence it is easier to push
How do we explain these? Let’s see what was happening.
145
We have learnt in lesson 10 that when you push you are applying a force. We will call this
force Applied Force (FA). Whenever a force is applied on an object, a new force is
“activated” which pushes the object in the opposite direction. This force is called Friction
Force (FF).
When only the two of you were pushing, the combi did not move; this is because your total
FA is less than FF. When more people helped, FA increased to be more than FF (i.e. the applied
force became large enough to overcome the friction) and the combi moved we say it
accelerated. Increasing FA further caused the combi to accelerate more.
What have we established so far?
Force can make a stationary object:
 Remain stationary if: applied force is less than friction force i.e. FA < FF no
acceleration
 Accelerate (move) in the direction of applied force if: applied force is greater than
friction force i.e. FA > FF there is acceleration
What makes the combi/object to move? Let’s see:
When more of you push the combi, part of your applied force was used to overcome friction
and the combi was able to start moving. The remaining part of your applied force was used
to keep the combi moving! Ah, we have introduced a new force right there. We call this new
force the Resultant Force (FR). This is the force that makes the object to accelerate (move).
Now can you see the relationship between the three forces?
Applied Force – Friction Force = Resultant Force
i.e
𝐅𝐀 – 𝐅𝐅 = 𝐅𝐑
But what do we mean by resultant force?
Forces which act along a straight line can be added if the forces are in the same direction
or subtracted if the forces are in the opposite direction like the applied force and friction in
our case. The force that you get after adding or subtracting is called the resultant force.
The resultant force is a single force that has the same effect as all the other forces combined.
It is sometimes called the Unbalanced Force or the Net Force.
Let us look at the following examples.

146
In the diagram above, the forces are in the same direction and can be added
producing a resultant force of 5N + 5N = 10 N pointing to the left. This is an example of an
unbalanced force because the resultant force is not zero.
5N 8
In the diagram above, the forces are in opposite directions and can be subtracted producing
a resultant force of 8N – 5N = 3 N pointing to the right. This is another example of annN
unbalanced force because the net force is not zero.
8N 8N
In the diagram above, the forces are in opposite directions and can be subtracted producing
a resultant force of 8N – 8N = 0 N. This is an example of balanced forces because the
resultant force is zero.
One more thing! When pushing objects:
When it is just you and one passenger pushing, the combi does not move, when more people
push, the combi moves. When even more passengers push, the combi moves even faster.
Increasing applied force on the combi/object increases the resultant force which increases the
speed of the combi/object i.e.
FR ∝ a ……………………………1
i.e. Resultant force is directly proportional to the acceleration of the object
When the object has more mass (m), i.e. it is bigger like pushing a bus, we will need more
people (i.e. more force) to make it accelerate; i.e.
𝐅𝐑 ∝ 𝐦 …………………………..2
i.e. Resultant force is directly proportional to the mass of the object
and
𝟏
𝐚 ∝ 𝐦 …….………………………3
i.e. acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the object
Putting 1, 2, and 3 together:

147
𝐅𝐑 = 𝐦𝐚
Where:
 FR = unbalanced force/resultant force/net force

 m = mass
 a = acceleration
This is known as Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
15. 2 Effect of Force on an Object that is Already Moving
In the picture below, the forces are unbalanced even though they are in opposite directions
because one is bigger than the other.
The unbalanced resultant force is 10N from 15 - 5 N = 10 N pointing to the left. This will
cause a change in motion, called acceleration.
If the object above is not moving, the unbalanced force will start to move it to the left.
If it is already moving to the left, the unbalanced force will make it move faster to the left.
If it is already moving to the right, the unbalanced force will make it move slower to the
right or it can even reverse to the left.
If we decrease the 15N to 5N such that the two forces balance as shown below, the object
then moves at constant speed. We call this constant speed Terminal velocity.
5N
Summary
A force can:
 Move a stationary object

 Increase the speed of a moving object
 Change the direction of a moving object
148
 Stop a moving object
When forces are acting on objects, these
Newton’s second law of motion :
FR = ma
Task Questions
1. State two effects a force can have on an object.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 marks]
2. A bus of mass of 1200 kg starts from rest and accelerates along a straight horizontal road.
The bus engine produces a constant driving force of 3400 N. A constant frictional force of
400 N acts on the bus.
Calculate the acceleration of the bus.
acceleration ________________________[2 marks]
3. The diagram below shows three forces acting on a 1.4 kg cart.
149
What is the acceleration of the cart?
acceleration =______________________________[2]
4 a) The diagram shows two forces acting on a car of mass 1 250 kg, travelling on a level
straight road.
Direction of motion
Calculate the unbalanced force acting on the car.
Unbalanced force = __________________________________[2]
(ii) What effect will the unbalanced force have on the speed of the car?
______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________[1]
(iii) What name is given to the 750N force and state what causes it.
Name__________________________________________________________________
Cause ___________________________________________________________________[2]
(iv) Calculate the acceleration of the car.
acceleration =______________________________[2]
(b) The car eventually reaches a constant speed.
150
(i) Explain why the car reaches a constant speed.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________ [2]
(ii) State the name of the constant speed
_____________________________________________________________________[1]
(iii) State the value of the force mentioned in (a) (i) above, at this point.
Force____________________________[1]
RFERENCES
California
http://www.gcsescience.com/pfm15.htm
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Lesson 16: Work, Energy and Power
16.1: Forms of Energy
Learning objectives
 list various forms of energy and identify their sources

 define kinetic and potential energy (mechanical)
 use kinetic and gravitational potential in calculations involving energy conversions
 describe energy conversions and apply the principle of conservation of energy giving
examples
 list major energy sources in Botswana.
 describe the socio- economic and environmental impact of each energy sources
locally and globally.
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social context
We all need energy to perform some tasked. When we are hungry we become sluggish to do
some work. We take in breakfast to kick start the day full of energy. The food that we eat in
the morning is used as we walk to work or school, as we chat, as we keep awake and as we
do our morning tasks. So, the food that we eat is changed into the energy and as we work we
use up the energy we had. We then get hungry again and have refuel.
Key issues
Energy is needed to do work that’s why we find it difficult to work when hungry. After eating
we transfer all the energy into doing work exhausting the energy we had and feeling hungry
again
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Without food we can’t have energy and without energy we can’t do any work and the food
that we eat is transferred into other forms of energy rather than being destroyed.
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. There are many forms of energy of which falls under two
major types, kinetic and potential energy.
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by objects in motion.
Potential energy is the energy possessed by object due to their position.
Forms of energy and their sources
Energy form Source

Chemical energy Batteries, biomass, food, gas, coal, petrol
e.t.c.
Nuclear energy Nucleus of atoms e.g uranium
Gravitational energy Objects above the ground
Elastic energy Springs and rubber bands
Thermal energy Hot objects
Sound energy Vibrating objects
Electrical energy Electricity
Mechanical energy Moving object
Light energy lights, sun
Solar energy Sun
Kinetic Energy can be calculated from the relation of the mass of the moving object and its
speed.
Kinetic Energy = half the mass of the object x its velocity squared
KE = ½ mv2
Potential energy relates the mass of the object, the gravitational force and the height of the
object above the ground.
PE = mgh
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Task questions
Q1. What is the kinetic energy of a 30kg body moving at a speed of 15m/s?
______________
Q2. A light bulb of mass 1.5kg is fixed on the ceiling 2.5m above the floor. Given that
acceleration due to gravity is 10m/s2, calculate its gravitational potential energy.
gravitational potential energy _______________
Q3. Consider the light bulb in question 2. The fixation loosens and the light bulb comes
crushing on to the floor.
What is the kinetic energy of the light bulb as it hits the floor?
____________________
What assumption did you make in answering a. above?
___________________________________________________________________________
___
154
Energy conservations
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed though it may be changed from one form to
another.
This statement is called the law of conservation of energy.
Examples of Energy conservations/changes
1.When lifting a load: the chemical energy stored in the muscles is burnt out to be able to
move the load from the ground to a higher point. In this case we write:
Chemical Energy - Kinetic Energy – Gravitational Potential Energy
2.Talking into a microphone
Sound Energy – Electrical energy – Sound Energy
3.Burning Fire
Chemical Energy – Heat + Light Energy
4.In a hydroelectric power station
Gravitational Potential Energy – Kinetic Energy – Mechanical Energy – Electric Energy
Major Energy sources in Botswana
Wood-for cooking, heating and lighting
Petrolium and diesel-for transportation and driving engines
Coal-for production of electricity and heating
Food-for energy
Sun-for lighting, drying, heating and electricity
155
Socio-economic and environmental impact of energy sources
Various sources of energy have different way in which they impact on the socio-economic
and environmental issues.
Thermal Power
Figure 34: Morupule coal power plant. source:

http://www.sundaystandard.info/bpc-ushers-
%E2%80%9Cblack-christmas%E2% 80% 9D-botswana-
households-businesses. It uses coal or other biomass which
are burned to heat water to drive turbines using steam. Coal
is non-renewable and causes air pollution when burned.
Burning coal and other biomass also produce harmful green-
house gases which causes global warming. Geothermal power is a better option as it is
limitless but it is expensive and not easy to setup. Thermal Power station creates a lot of
employment but dangerous as it uses high temperatures which is dangerous to the workers ad
can cause fires.
Solar Power
Figure 35: Solar panels. Source:

https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/
article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10813842, Solar energy uses
the power of solar cells to turn the energy from the sun into
electrical energy. Solar energy is one of the abundant free
renewable clean energy. It is unreliable as the sun is not
always out. Solar panels are also expensive to purchase.
These requires a very large space where they can be installed
affecting the ecosystem and the environment. In a case where solar concentrators are used to
focus the energy on to the receivers, insects and birds may be killed by the highly
temperature concentrated beams produced. This type of power source does not create a lot of
employment except during installation.
Wind Power
Figure 36: windmill farm. Source: https://www.power-

technology.com/features/us-wind-energy-by-state/. In wind
power wind energy turns wind turbines to produce
156
electricity. Wind energy is free to all, renewable and is eco-friendly. Unfortunately wind
turbines are very expensive to buy. They are very big, noisy and spoil the landscape. Wind
farms are covers a very large area causing serious deforestation. Birds like bats are usually
victims of being killed by the large blades of the turbines. Wind power as much as solar
power does not create employment except for the technicians to monitor and service the
turbines.
Hydroelectric Power
Figure 37: Hydroelectric power dam. Source:

https://energyfive.net/2018/02/05/what-is-hydroelectric-
power-plant/. Elevated water is used to drive turbines as it
flows down. This type of energy is clean and renewable but
only available where there are big perennial rivers. Its
reliability depends on the availability of the water or rain
which in some areas is seasonal. Dams are general not easy to build and need highly skilled
personnel. It usually poses a threat to the neighbouring settlements when the dams over flows
or when the dam accidentally collapses. Animals living in water are usually killed or injured
by this method of power generation.
Nuclear Power
Figure 38: Nuclear power station. Source:

https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-
policy/france-submits-techno-commercial-offer-for-
jaitapur-nuclear-power-project-118122300454_1.html.The
power generated during nuclear fission of uranium or
plutonium is so huge that the energy produced can
generate large amounts of electricity far more than coal
can generate. The heat energy produced is used to heat water to produce steam just as in the
case of thermal and geothermal power stations. Nuclear power does not generate harmful
gases but very dangerous to living thing as it uses radioactive materials. The nuclear waste
requires maximum precaution to dispose. They have to be disposed in thick walled lead
sealed containers and buried underground where no one can gain access.
Wave and Tidal Power
Figure 39: wave/tidal foats. Source:

https://www.greenprophet.com/2010/08/sde-energy-jaffa/.
The two forms of generating power depends on the
movement of water in the sea or oceans. Wave power is
157
generated when wind blowing on the surface of the water causes waves which will cause big
floats to move up and down driving the turbines as the waves pass. On the other hand tidal
power harnesses the rising and falling of water levels called tides due to the position of the
earth in relation to the moon and the sun which affect the level of the sea due to their
gravitational forces. Wave power reliability is similar to wind power while Tidal is reliable as
the movement of the celestial bodies is everlasting. The two forms are limited to seas and
oceans and affect native water animals.
Questions
Q1. List any five forms of energy that you know.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q2. State the law of conservation of energy.
___________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Outline the energy changes in a Nuclear power station.
___________________________________________________________________________
__________
Q4. What is the gravitational potential energy of a rock of mass 75kg at a height of 4m? Take
the force of gravity as 10m/s2.
_________________
158
Q5. Calculate the kinetic energy of an object of mass 500kg and velocity of 12m/s.
_________________
Q6. A toy rocket is vertically launched from the ground at a speed of 60m/s. taking the
acceleration due to gravity as 10m/s2, calculate the maximum height the rocket will reach.
_______________
Q7. Discuss the socio-economic and environmental impact of any the sources of power.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Summary
 energy is the ability to do work

 the two major energy type are kinetic energy and potential energy
159
 forms of energy include
Chemical energy
Nuclear energy
Gravitational
energy
Elastic energy
Thermal energy
Sound energy
Electrical energy
Mechanical energy
Light energy
Solar energy
 Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by objects in motion. It is given by

 KE = ½ mv2
 Potential energy is possessed by object due to their position. Gravitational potential
energy is given by
 GPE = mgh
 law of conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed, it is
transformed into other forms.
160
13.2: WORK AND ENERGY
Lesson Introduction
Learning objectives:
Relate work done to the magnitude of a force and the distance moved and make calculations
involving Fxs
Describe the relationship between work and power
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social context
Your parent’s car cannot start and you are asked to push start it. You push at maximum
strength until the car starts moving, you pushed harder to pick up speed and some few meters
ahead the car starts.
Key issues
The more you push the more the car gain speed. More force gives more speed hence more
work done.
When you push you are applying force. The car moved a certain distance towards the
direction of the push (force applied). Because the force applied resulted in the car moving a
certain distance, you have done work in moving the car that same distance. Imagine pushing
a car with its brakes on, it will not move no matter how much force you exert on it. Because
the car did not move, you haven’t done any work on the car even though you are exhausted
from trying to push it. You can’t say you have done work when the car is still in the same
position.
161
Work is done when the force (F) applied on an object causes it to move distance (s) in the
direction of the applied force.
Work done = Force x Displacement
W=Fs
As you push the car through distance s, you are using up energy and the energy used do to
work is relative to the work done.
The amount of energy used in doing work is proportional to the work done.
Work done = Change in Energy
Task questions
Q1. A force of 300N is applied on a load and causes it to move 8m. Calculate the work done
by the force on the load.
__________________________________
Q2. A body of weight 450N is lifted 1.5m above the ground. What is the work done on lifting
the body?
______________________________
Key Terms.
Weight: the amount of gravitational force acting on an object.
Questions
Q1. What is the relation between work done and energy?
162
______________________________________________
Q2. If a girl pushes her younger sister on a walker a distance of 3m by applying a force of
60N how much work does she do?
_____________________
Q3. A bull fight a bull having an energy of 30kJ pushes its contender a distance of 6m. How
much force is the bull applying?
_____________________
Q4. A boy of mass 30kg climbs up a tree and jumps down to the ground. Given that the force
of gravity is 10N/kg and that the tree is 3m high,
Calculate the work done by the boy in climbing up the tree?
________________________
What is the amount of work done by gravity in pulling the boy down to the ground?
________________________
What is amount of energy used by the boy in climbing up the tree?
163
________________________
Summary
Work done = force x distance moved in the direction of force
W=Fs
Work done is also equal to the change in energy
W=E
Note. No work is done when no displacement is caused by force.
164
13.3: Work and Power
Learning objectives
 define power
 use the equation P = W/t in simple calculations
Lesson Content
Social context
We all at one point got late at school or work. When you are walking to school and you
realise you are going to be late you walk faster, or you even start running. Your intention in
doing so is to be on time. We can say you want to cover a greater distance in a shorter time.
By walking a certain distance, you are doing work. And the time taken in doing that work
relates to your power out. When you do more work in a shorter time you are increasing your
power output. Because when doing work energy is used, this is why when you are late you
get tired and sweat more than when walk normally.
Key issues
More work done in a short period of time gives you more power. You are more powerful
when you work faster.
In the scenario above, you walk faster when you are late do to more work in a shorter time.
That is you are increasing your rate of doing work.
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
It can be understood by:
Power = work done per time taken to do the work
Power in Watts =Work done in Joules/ time in seconds
Equation of power
165
P=W/t
Example
When a work of 3000Joules is done in 3seconds then the power is given by:
Power = 3000J/3s
Power=1000J=1kJ
Task questions
Q1. A boy takes 20s to run up the stairs. If he does a work of 400J in running up the stairs,
calculate his rate of doing work.
_______________
Q2. An electric kettle of power rating 2kW boils water in 180s. Calculate the work done by
the kettle.
_______________
166
Q3. Consider question 2. How much time will the kettle take to do a work of 10MJ?
_______________
Questions
Q1. A donkey does a 5kJ works in pulling a loaded cart across a 30m yard in 75 seconds.
Calculate its power output.
________________
Q2. If a tractor produces a power of 30MJ in ploughing a field in an hour, how much work
does it do?
________________
167
Q3. A boy lifting his toy outputs a power of 850J. If in lifting the toy he does 30J of work
how much time it take him to lift his toy?
_______________
Q4. Suppose you are applying 300N force on a car for 30s to push it.
How much power do you have if the car does not move?
_________________
What assumption did you make in a.?
_____________________________________________________________________
Q5. A fork lifter lifts a 500kg load to a 2m high shelf in 4 seconds. What is the power output
of the fork lifter?
_________________
168
Q6. A man loads 30 crates of chibuku into his car in 5 minutes. If he uses 200J of energy to
load one crate what is his power output in loading all the crates?
_______________
Summary
Power is the rate of doing work
Power is given by P=W/t
REFERENCES
Revise Physics by Michael Shepherd 1986
www.eia.gov/kids/energy.php?page=1
169
UNIT TWO THERMAL PHYSICS
Unit Introduction
Welcome to the second unit of Physics. In the previous unit we went through the general
Physics concepts. In this unit we will concentrate on thermal energy in details. We will start
off by looking at thermal expansion, then move to measuring temperature, melting and
boiling and finally the transfer of heat energy.
Unit Aims
After you have completed this unit, you should be able to:
Unit Content
This unit comprises four topics divided into various lessons as follows:
Topic 1: Thermal Expansion
Topic 2: Measurement of Temperature
Topic 3: Melting and Boiling
Topic 4: Heat Transfer
Lesson 13: Conduction
Lesson 14: Convection
Lesson 15: Radiation
170
Lesson 1 Thermal Expansion of Matter
Introduction
Learning objectives
 describe and demonstrate the thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
 show an appreciation of the relative order of magnitude of the expansion of solids,
liquids and gases
 identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of thermal
expansion including thermostat
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social context
The diagram shows a liquid-in-glass thermometer.
You might have observed that when the thermometer is touching in a hot object, the liquid
level in the thermometer rises. When the thermometer is touching a cold object, the liquid
level in the thermometer drops.
Key issues
171
- Liquid level rises when the thermometer is touching a hot object.
- Liquid level drops when the thermometer is touching a cold object.
The liquid level in the thermometer rises when the thermometer is touching a hot object. The
heat from the hot object heats up the liquid in the thermometer causing it to increase in size.
The opposite happens when the thermometer touches the cold object, the liquid in the
thermometer loses heat and starts to contract and the level drops. The question is what causes
this change in the liquid level?
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in

temperature. When the temperature increases the volume of the object also increases and
when the temperature decreases the volume of the object also decreases. Thermal expansion
occurs as the atoms or molecules gain kinetic energy expand or move apart there by creating
an increase in the size of the object.
Experiments are done to show how matter (solids, liquids, and gases) expand as they are
heated
Solids
The experiment bellow is used to show that when solids are heated they expand. Before
heating the ball, the ball can pass through the ring, and after the ball is heated it does not pass
through the ring. During heating the ball expands as the molecules in the ball move further
apart. When the ball cools down it contract and it can pass through the ring once again.
172
Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/5239373/
Liquids
A flask containing a liquid is capped with a stopper that is fitted with a capillary tube. When
the flask is heated, the liquid expand into the capillary tube. This shows that when liquid is
heated it expands
Gases
The experiment below can used to show that gases expand when heated.
Procedure:
1. Obtain an empty 500 ml round bottomed flask fitted with a cork and a glass tubing.
2. Place a beaker with some water on a bench.
3. Rub your hands together thoroughly and place them on the flask and place it in the water
as shown. 4. Observe what happens.
173
Discussion:
The heat produced by the hands makes the air inside the flask to expand. This makes the
volume to increase and therefore force the excess air out as bubbles.
Looking at the above three experiments, solids need a lot of heating but expand a little,
liquids need less heat a compared to solids and expand more than solids as the liquid can be
seen rising up the capillary. Gases need the least heat and expand more than liquids. Heat
from the hands is just enough for gases to expand. So relatively gases expand the most then
followed by liquids and the least expanding being solids.
Thermal expansion can be useful as well as a menace. People always find a way of dealing
with the consequences of thermal expansion.
Uses of thermal expansion
A bimetallic strip
A bimetallic strip is made of two different metal strip bonded together. The two metals like in
this case brass and iron have different expansions. When heated two metals expand at
different rates. Brass expand more than iron hence the bending.
174
The thermostat
A thermostat is a device that regulates temperature. It switches on and off automatically to

maintain the temperature at a set value. The most common use in our homes is an iron
thermostat. The thermostat that we will discuss is the one that uses a bimetallic strip.
When the iron is cool, the bimetallic strip is straight and the contacts are closed. This allows
electricity to pass to the heating element. The heating element heats up the sole and bimetallic
strip starts to bend up. When the heat reaches the set value the bimetallic strip would have
bent enough to open the contacts. Electricity stops flowing. The iron starts to cool and the
bimetallic strip starts to straight up. If it cools too much, the contacts close again and the
process repeats.
The fire alarm
175
Some fire alarms use the bimetallic strip like the one we will be discussing as shown in the
diagram below. When there is fire, the bimetallic strip heats up and bends downwards. This
closes the contacts, electricity starts to flow and the siren rings.
Consequences of thermal expansion
Some of the most common consequences and the way we deal with them as per the examples
below.
Concrete slabs
The space between the slabs is filled with soft sand to accommodate for the expansion and
contract as the temperature of the day changes. This avoids cracking of the slabs.
176
Concrete bridges
Bridges are built with gaps to allow for free movement of the bridge as the concrete expands
or conracts as the atmospheric temperature changes.
Source: https://wonderfulengineering.com/bridges-built-move-and-move/
The are many examples these are some of the few
QUESTIONS
1. What is thermal expansion of matter?
Answer
The increase in volume of matter due to the increase in temperature
2. How can you show that solids expand when heated?
Answer
Using a ball and ring experiment. Before heating the ball, the ball easily passes through the
ring. After the ball is heated, the ball does not pass through the ring.
Self-assessment questions
177
1. How can you demonstrate the gases expand when heated?
2. Give the order of thermal expansion between solids, liquids and gases. Start with th one
that expands the most.
SUMMARY
As temperatures changes matter also responds. An increase in temperature causes matter to

expand, we call this thermal expansion. Thermal means heat, so thermal expansion means
increase in volume due to increase in heat. Thermal expansion is useful in our lives but it also
cause disaster, which we term consequences of thermal expansion.
REFERENCES
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiW6Izf64PgAhXM
zoUKHVmFBl4Qjxx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwonderfulengineering.com%2Fbri
dges-built-move-and-
move%2F&psig=AOvVaw25Ao0412IfHlESMTB6vEYw&ust=1548330650430922
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/thermal-expansion/
https://www.kenyaplex.com/questions/38948-describe-an-experiment-to-show-expansion-of-
gases.aspx
178
Lesson 2 Measurement of Temperature
Learning Objectives :
 appreciate how a physical property which varies with temperature may be used for the
measurement of temperature e.g. thermal expansion and e.m.f
 recognise the need for and identify fixed points of a temperature scale
 demonstrate understanding of sensitivity and range
 describe the structure and action of liquid-in-glass thermometers (Laboratory and
Clinical)
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social context
1. Stand with one foot on a tiled floor and one foot on a wooden floor. The floor is all at the
same temperature, but does it feel so?
sec 2 science - physics
2. Try putting your left and right hands into 2 cans of water of different temperature as shown
in the diagram below.
Then place both hands into the centre pot of water. What would you feel?
179
The foot on the floor tile feels colder than the foot on the wooden tile despite the two tiles
being at the same temperature. Once in the warm water, the hand from the cold water feels
hot and the hand from the hot water feels cold.
The two situations show that our skin is not a good measure of temperature. To obtain
accurate measurement of temperature a thermometer is used.
How do we measure temperature?
 The thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature accurately.

 It makes use of the physical properties of substances such as mercury that vary
continuously and linearly with temperature.
 They are called thermometric substances.
180
Thermometric substances
Physical Property Thermometer
Volume of a fixed mass of liquid Mercury-in-glass thermometer, Alcohol-in-

glass thermometer
Electromotive force Thermocouple
Resistance of a piece of metal Resistance thermometer
Pressure of fixed mass of gas at constant Constant-volume gas thermometer

volume
SI unit for Temperature
•SI unit for temp is Kelvin, K (not degree celsius!!!)
What makes a good thermometer?
 An easy-to-read scale
 Linearity
 Safe to use
 Responsive to temperature changes
 Sensitive to small temperature changes
 Able to measure a wide range of temperatures
Constructing a temperature scale
(Calibrating a thermometer)
Step 1: Choose an appropriate substance
 Choose a suitable thermometric substance and its physical properties

 e.g. Volume of mercury which varies continuously with changes in temperature
181
Step 2: Choose two fixed points
 Choose two standard degrees of hotness or coldness which are easily obtainable and
reproducible. These are called fixed points
 The two fixed points for the Celsius Scale are:
o Temperature of pure melting ice at one atmospheric pressure – ice point
(Lower fixed point)
o Temperature at which boiling water changes into steam at one atmospheric
pressure – steam point (Upper fixed point)
 Record the values of the physical property (e.g. length of mercury column) of
substance at these two fixed points.
Finding the ice point
182
source: http://www:allmeasures.com/temperature.html
Finding the steam point
Why are ice point and steam points chosen?
 Easily obtainable and reproducible

 For purpose of standardization
Step 3: Set up the scale
When two fixed points are marked, the temperature between them are divided into equal
divisions so that temperatures can be read easily and precisely
183
Using the Celsius Scale, the interval between the fixed points is divided into 100 equal
divisions. Each division is 1 degree Celsius (°C).
Liquid-in-glass thermometers
Source :http://www.allmeasures.com/temperature.html
Characteristics:
•Range
 Sensitivity
 Responsiveness
 Linearity
184
Range
The range of thermometer is the interval between the minimum and maximum temperatures
that it can measure
Range of clinical thermometer is 35°C – 42°C
Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a mercury thermometer is defined as the change in length of mercury

column per unit degree change in temperature (mm/ ºC)
Which thermometer is more sensitive? A or B
B is more sensitive
5ºC change results in a larger length of mercury column in B compared to A
185
Sensitivity depends on:
1. Size of the glass bulb: Larger glass bulb increases the sensitivity
A larger bulb has more mercury for expansion to cause a big change in the length of the
mercury thread than a smaller bulb for the same temperature
2. Size of the capillary tube: Narrower capillary tube increases the sensitivity
A small expansion of the mercury in the bulb will cause a bigger change in the length of
the mercury thread of a narrower tube than a wider tube
Responsiveness
The responsiveness of a thermometer is the speed in which a reading can be obtained. It

depends on the thickness of the glass bulb. A thin glass bulb is more responsive because heat
takes less time to pass through a thin glass wall.
Linearity
Linearity measures the proportionality of change of the physical property with the
temperature
A thermometer is linear if its temperature readings change proportionally with the length of
the mercury column
Mercury is used in thermometer because it expands linearly with temperature.
Factors affecting range, sensitivity and responsiveness of a liquid-glass-thermometer
186
Change made to Change in range Change in Change in
thermometer sensitivity responsiveness
Increase size of bulb Shorter range (reach More sensitive Less responsive
a lower maximum
temperature)
Increase diameter of Longer range Less sensitive No change
capillary bore
Increase length of Longer range No change No change
stem
Use thicker glass for No change No change Less response
bulb
Features of liquid in glass thermometers and their functions
Feature Purpose
Mercury Expands uniformly over a wide range of

temperature.
Narrow bore of capillary tube Makes the thermometer more sensitive
Bulb is made of thin glass Heat can be conducted quickly to the

mercury (responsive)
Round glass stem Acts as a magnifying lens to make

temperature reading easy.
Clinical thermometer
187
35 scanned by cam scanner
source: http:sec 2 science - physics
•A thermometer specially designed for measuring the temperature of the human body.
•It is an ordinary mercury thermometer with two modifications:
short temperature range from about 35°C to 42°C
constriction in capillary tube just above the bulb of the thermometer
188
•The constriction prevents mercury from flowing back into the bulb by itself
Calculating the Temperature on an Unmarked Thermometer
source: sec 2 science – physics
Example
Find temperature X
189
Data: X0 = 2 cm, Xθ = 5 cm, X100 = 7 cm, ∆T = 100 °C, θ = X
Θ = Xθ – X0/(X100 – X0) x 100 °C
X = 5 – 2/(7 – 2) x 100
= 3/5 x 100
= 60 °C
Summary
Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles.
Any physical property that depends on temperature can be used to measure temperature.
The Celsius scale thermometer has got two fixed points. It has the lower fixed point which is
the temperature of pure melting ice and is equivalent to 0°C. It also has the upper fixed point
which is the temperature of steam above pure boiling water which is 100°C.
A thermometric liquid should have the following properties:
It should have a linear expansion when heated
It should be a liquid over a wide range of temperatures and expands by large amounts.
It should not wet i.e. should not stick to the glass.
Questions
1. The scale of a mercury-in-glass thermometer is linear.
What is meant by the statement that the scale is linear? [1]
190
2. A student puts the bulb of an unmarked liquid-in-glass thermometer into melting ice, then
into steam above boiling water and finally into sea-water. Each time she waits until the liquid
level is steady and then marks the level. The diagram shows the liquid levels measured from
the bulb. What is the temperature of the sea-water?
[2]
3.
The diagram below shows a lab thermometer.
(a) (i) State the range of the thermometer.
.............................................................................................................................. [1]
(ii) State one change in the design of the thermometer to increase its range.
..................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................. [1]
(b) (i) Describe how the behavior of a more sensitive thermometer is different from a
less sensitive thermometer.
..................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................. [1]
(ii) State one change in the design of the thermometer to make it more sensitive.
..................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................. [1]
(c) Describe how a clinical thermometer differs from a laboratory thermometer. A diagram
may be included in your answer.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [3]
Answers
1.
191
A thermometer is linear if its temperature readings change proportionally with the length of
the mercury column
2.
Data: X0 = 2 cm, Xθ = 4 cm, X100 = 12 cm, θ = temp. of sea-water, ∆T = 100

°C
Θ = Xθ – X0 / (X100 – X0) x ∆T
= 4 – 2/(12 – 2) x 100
= 2/10 x 100
= 20 °C
(a) (i) 120°C or –10°C to 110°C [1]
(ii) longer thermometer or wider bore or less mercury or smaller bulb not
change liquid [1]
(b) (i) measures small(er) change in temperature or small(er) range for same
distance or large(r) expansion for (same) temperature rise [1]
(ii) larger bulb or more liquid or narrower bore/tube or use liquid that expands
more [1]
(c) constriction/narrowing (accept 1st and 3rd marks on diagram)
mercury/thread breaks at constriction (on cooling)
range different
more sensitive/divisions further apart
triangular cross-section/acts as lens
thin(ner) bulb (quick response to temperature change) [3]
192
34°C (accept 34.188, 34.18, 34.19)
Reference
1.
Physics notes, © spanapodi 2010
2.
Physics for you, Revised National curriculum Edition for GCSE, Keith Johnson
2.
http://www:allmeasures.com/temperature.html
193
Lesson 3 Melting and Boiling
Objectives
 describe melting/solidification and

 boiling/condensation in terms of energy input without a change in temperature
 state the meaning of melting point and boiling point
 state the difference between boiling and evaporation
 sketch and interpret cooling curves
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Social Construct
Study the pictures below represented by the letters a, b, c, d and e write down the processes
taking place at each of these pictures.
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a
195
b
196
c
197
d
source: http:www.hilldale.k12.ok.us
198
e
If your answers to the above questions corresponds with the following then you are correct:
A – melting
B – melting
C –freezing
D – condensation
E – sublimation
The processes shown in the pictures are called changes of state.
A change of state is the change of a substance from one physical form to another. All changes
of state are physical changes. The particles have different amounts of energy when the
substance is in different states.
Energy and Changes of State
When most substances lose or gain energy, one of two things happens to the substance: its
temperature changes or its state changes. The temperature of a substance is related to the
speed of the substance’s particles. So, when the temperature of a substance changes, the
speed of the particles also changes. But the temperature of a substance does not change until
the change of state is complete.
Melting is the change of state from a solid to a liquid. When a solid is at its melting point,
any energy added to it is used to overcome the attractions that hold the particles in place.
When a pure solid melts it stays at the same, definite temperature called its melting point
and it also solidifies at the very same temperature (now it would be called its freezing point).
During melting or freezing, the temperature does not change even though the substance
continues to gain or lose (heat) energy. The energy gained is used to re-arrange the
particles/molecules/atoms of the substance.
The heat absorbed by the substance during melting or given out during solidification is
called latent heat of fusion. The energy is used to overcome the attractive forces between the
particles that keep them in their fixed positions. Latent heat changes the state of the substance
without change in the temperature (“latent” literally means hidden)
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Freezing is the change of state from a solid to a liquid. Removing energy will cause the
particles in a liquid to begin locking into place.
Evaporation is the change of a substance from a liquid to a gas. Boiling is the change of a
liquid to a vapor, or gas, throughout the liquid.
If the energy is supplied to a liquid, e.g. water, its temperature rises until it boils. During
boiling the temperature of water remains constant. The temperature at which a liquid turns
into a gas by boiling is called its boiling point. As water turns into steam, the energy
supplied does not cause a rise in temperature instead is used to enable molecules to break the
attractive forces holding the particles together. The energy absorbed and used to change a
liquid to a gas without changing the temperature of the substance is called latent heat of
vaporisation. The latent heat of vaporization is given out during condensation to change a gas
to a liquid.
Condensation is the change of state from a gas to a liquid.
Sublimation is the change of state in which a solid changes directly into a gas.
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Boiling curve
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Cooling curve
We can also plot a graph of temperature against time (boiling curve) when the steam of
temperature above
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100 °C.
condensation
steam
Water + steam
water Freezing/solidificatio
n
water + ice ice
Evaporation
Evaporation is the escape of high energy molecules from the surface of a liquid. Evaporation
results in a drop in the temperature of the liquid from which the molecules escaped. This is
because the molecules that escape acquire energy to do so from those which remain in the
liquid. Evaporation only takes place at the surface of the liquid and occurs at any
temperature.
Evaporation happens for the following two reasons:
Not all particles in the liquid are moving at the same speed and, as a result, the faster particles
are more likely to overcome the forces they feel from their neighbors.
The particles at the surface of the liquid are only held in place by forces from the neighboring
particles beneath them, whereas particles in the middle of the liquid have forces holding them
on all sides. Thus, particles at the surface find it easier to break away from the liquid.
In the cases of both boiling and evaporation, the force between two particles is always
present. The greater the space between the particles becomes, however, the weaker the force
is between them. To break the bond between two particles, one particle has to be moving fast
enough to overcome the pull of the other, until it gets so far away that pull is diminished.
203
Factors That Affect Evaporation
A number of factors affect the rate of evaporation. These are;
Increase in the surface area - This means that more of the energetic particles of the liquid are
the surface and can escape.
Increase in temperature - An increase in temperature increases the average kinetic energy of

the particles. This means that more particles have enough energy to escape from the liquid.
Decreasing the pressure above the liquid - Less energy is necessary to escape from the liquid
since there is less force exerted downwards on the liquid by the air.
Draught (Wind current) - It blows away vapour molecules above the liquid surface
preventing them from returning to the liquid. This gives room for other molecules to escape
from the liquid.
Applications of evaporation
Ether is used in fridges to cool their interiors
Water sacks are put under the shade and moistened with water so that the water inside cools
as the molecules outside evaporate.
Organisms cool themselves by evaporation using different ways,
. Dogs = Panting
Elephants= Flap their ears
Humans= Perspiration
Plants=Evaporation from leaves (transpiration)
Differences and similarities between boiling and evaporation
Both processes involve a change in state from liquid to gas, but evaporation is not the same as
boiling.
A. Differences
Boiling Evaporation
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1). Quick 1). Slow
2). Occurs at only one temperature – 2). Occurs at all temperatures

boiling point
3). Occurs throughout the whole body of 3). Occurs only at the surface
the liquid
4). Bubbles seen 4). Nothing visible happens (no bubbles)
5). Source of energy is needed 5). Energy supplied by the surroundings
6). Boiling point increases with increase 6). Rate of evaporation decrease with
pressure increase in pressure
7). Decrease with increase in altitude 7). No effects
B. Similarities
1. They both form vapour
2. They both take place in liquids
3. They both occur as a result of increase of k.e in the molecules
4. Latent heat of vapourisation is needed for both processes
Task Question
Complete the diagram below by filling in the missing words
205
Task Question Answers
Summary
Whenever a substance undergoes a phase change (boils, melts or condenses, etc) energy is
taken away or added to the substance. But surprisingly there is no temperature change during
a phase change.
206
Melting is the change of state from a solid to a liquid.
Freezing is the change of state from a solid to a liquid.
Evaporation is the change of a substance from a liquid to a gas. Boiling is the change of a
liquid to a vapour, or gas, throughout the liquid.
Condensation is the change of state from a gas to a liquid.
Sublimation is the change of state in which a solid changes directly into a gas.
Questions
1.
Table shows the melting points and boiling points of four substances. Which state are the
substances in at room temperature (say 15 °C)?
Substance Melting point / °C Boiling point / °C
A -73 -10
B -39 357
C 17 118
D 29 669
2.
The graph shows how the temperature of a pure substance changes as it is heated.
207
(a) At what temperature does the substance boil?
(b) On the graph, mark with an X any point where the substance exists as both a liquid
and gas at the same time.
(c) i) All substances consists of particles. What happens to the average kinetic energy
of these particles as the substance changes from a liquid to a gas.
ii) Explain, in terms of particles, why energy must be given to a liquid if it is to

change to a gas.
3. The graph below shows how the temperature of some liquid in a beaker changed as it was
heated until it was boiling.
(a) What was the boiling point of the liquid?
(b) State and explain what difference, if any, there would be in the final temperature if
the liquid was heated more strongly.
(c) State two differences between boiling and evaporation.
Answers
1.
A – gas
B – liquid
C - liquid
2.
a. 450 C
b. Anywhere on the horizontal line of the condensation level

208
c.
(i) It increases
(ii) There are attractive forces between particles. The energy is used to overcome the
attractive forces between the particles that keep them in their fixed positions so that they can
move slightly apart.
3.
(a) 80o C
(b) No change in boiling point so final temperature remains 80o C because the heating is done
at same atmospheric pressure.
(c)
Differences
Boiling Evaporation
1). Quick 1). Slow
2). Occurs at only one temperature – 2). Occurs at all temperatures

boiling point
3). Occurs throughout the whole body of 3). Occurs only at the surface
the liquid
4). Bubbles seen 4). Nothing visible happens (no bubbles)
5). Source of energy is needed 5). Energy supplied by the surroundings
6). Boiling point increases with increase 6). Rate of evaporation decrease with
pressure increase in pressure
7). Decrease with increase in altitude 7). No effects
REFERENCE
1.
Physics notes, © spanapodi 2010
2.
IGCSE Physics, Richard Woodside, Pearson
3.
209
http://www.hilldale.k12.ok.us
210
Lesson 4 Thermal Transfer - Conduction
Introduction
Welcome to lesson 4 in unit 2. In this lesson we continue learning about thermal energy, this
time we concentrate on the movement of heat energy from one place to another. Heat travels
Learning objectives
 give a simple molecular account of heat transfer in solids

 perform and describe experiments to demonstrate good and bad conductors of heat
 identify and explain some of the everyday applications of conduction
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Sample questions
Sample question Answers
Summary
Task Questions
References
Social Context
At home when cooking outside with fire wood, you can actually remove a burning firewood
easily from the fire with your hands without getting them burned. However, you need a cloth
to remove the pot from the fire because holding it with bare hands can easily send you to the
clinic! Better still, you would choose wood to revive the fire than using a metal rod since with
a metallic rod even the end that is in your hand not in the fire would soon feel too hot to
handle.
Also, in the same room (at the same temperature), a wooden bench feels warmer than one
made of metal.
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How do explain all these?
These can be explained by conduction. Conduction is the heat transfer by means of faster
molecular motion within a material without any shift of the material as a whole. Conduction
occurs mainly in solids in this way: When a solid is heated at one end, the particles at the
heated end receive the heat energy which is then changed to kinetic energy. This kinetic
energy causes the particles to vibrate faster and more vigorously. As they shake like that, they
hit the neighbouring slower molecules. When they hit the slower molecules, they give them
their energy causing the slower molecules to vibrate also. They intern hit the other particles
next to them and pass this energy to the particles next to them. After some time all the
particles will have the energy and the end of the rod in your hand will feel hot too.
But now the question becomes, how come the metal rod feels hot quicker and more than the
wooden rod yet they received the same amount of heat energy? The answer is in the atomic
structure of these substances. Atoms of metals have fewer electrons in the outer shells unlike
non-metals with many electrons. These electrons can leave their atoms and move about in the
metal as free electrons. When a metal is heated, these electrons move from the heated end to
the cooler end carrying along with them the heat energy.
What can we conclude?
Metals are good conductors of heat while non-metals are poor conductors of heat which is
why they are used as insulators. Materials like wool and fibre glass are good insulators
because they contain trapped air.
Conduction happens in two ways:
First by vibration of atoms which takes place in both poor and good conductors
The movement of free electron which are only found in metals.
The movement of free electrons transfers more energy than the vibrations of the atoms.
Much as metals are good conductors of heat, they do not conduct at the same rate. Some
conduct faster than others. An experiment can be used to investigate which metal is the best
conductor of heat. It involves some long thin strips of different metals (eg steel, aluminium
and copper), wax, drawing pins and a Bunsen burner.
Method:
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Fix the drawing pin to the end of the metal strip using drops of wax.
Position the other end of the metal strip into a Bunsen flame.
Record the time taken for the wax to melt and the drawing pin to drop off.
http://ibbyssciencewebsite.weebly.com/op31---carry-out-simple-experiments-to-show-the-
transfer-of-heat-energy-by-conduction-convection-and-radiation-investigate-conduction-and-
convection-in-water.html
The fastest time shows the best conductor of heat.
Variables that affect the time taken for the drawing pins to fall include the distance they are
from the flame and the thickness of the metal. If you have controlled all of these variables,
you should find that copper conducts better than aluminium, while aluminium conducts better
than steel.
19.1 Experiments to demonstrate good and bad conductors of heat
1. Conduction in gases
Hold your hand beside a candle flame and about 10 cm away from it. How hot does it feel?
What does this tell you about how well air conducts heat?
2. Conduction in liquids
213
Source: https://igcseaid.wordpress.com/notes/coordinated-science-0654/p6-1-conduction/
This experiment also shows how convection currents move in a fluid. We will discuss more
on this subject in the next lesson.
3. Conduction in solids
Using the composite rod shown in the diagram below, you can compare how well copper and
wood conduct heat.
Copper rod Wooden rod
Source:http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age11-
14/Heat%20energy/Transfer%20of%20heat%20energy/text/Conduction_of_heat/index.html
Wind a piece of paper around where the two rods join, stick it down and heat the junction
with a flame. Wait a few seconds for the paper to char.
What happens? Which side of the paper chars first and why?
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Burn marks may be seen along the length of the wood in the direction of the grain of the
wood. This is because the thermal conductivity of wood is better along the grain of the wood.
Heat transfers quickly through the paper because it is thin and therefore does not burn due to
the applied flame. The metal conducts the heat away from the junction and therefore remains
cool. The wood however does not conduct very well and therefore rapidly heats up burning
the paper, and the wood underneath if left too long.
19.2 Some of the everyday applications of conduction
Uses of good conductors of heat
Cooking utensils, kettles, saucepans and boilers are usually made of aluminium or stainless
steel where direct heating is involved.
Soldering iron rods are made of iron with the tip made of copper because copper is a much
better conductor of heat than iron.
Heat exchangers such as those used in a laundry enable precious fuel to be saved
Uses of bad conductors of heat (insulators)
Insulators are very useful if we want to minimise heat flow or heat loss. Some applications of
insulators are:
Handles of saucepans, kettles, teapots, irons and soldering iron rods are made of wood or
plastics which are very poor conductors of heat. In this way, the hot utensil or iron can picked
up without scalding our hand.
Table mats are usually made of cork so that hot kitchenware can be placed on them without
damaging the table-top.
Sawdust is used to cover ice blocks because of its good insulating property.
Wooden blankets or clothes are used to keep people warm on cold and chilly days.
Task Questions
1 The diagram below shows the arrangement of atoms and some particles in a metal block.
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(a) End X of the block is heated. Energy is conducted to end Y, which becomes warm.
(i) Name the process by which thermal energy is transferred through the metal block.
.............................................................................................................................................. [1]
(ii) Explain fully how heat is conducted from X to Y.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(iv) Explain why the solid block expands when it is heated.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................ [1]
2. (a) An iron rod and a copper rod of equal length are each held by hand at one end, with the
other end in the flame from a Bunsen burner, as shown in the diagram below.
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The copper rod becomes too hot to hold much sooner than the iron rod.
What does this information tell you about iron and copper?
................................................................................................................................................[1]
b) Explain why:
(i) Metals feel cold when touched
.................................................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) Metals (such as iron and copper) are better heat conductors than non-metals (such as
glass and wood)?
.................................................................................................................................................[1]
(iii) Saucepans are much more common with plastic handles than metal handles.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………….…………………………………………………………[1]
3 An electric soldering iron is used to melt solder, for joining wires in an electric circuit. A
soldering iron is shown in the diagram below.
Solder is a metal which melts easily. The heater coil inside the metal cylinder heats the
copper tip.
(a) (i) Suggest why the tip is made of copper.
........................................................................................................................................ [1]
217
(ii) Suggest why the handle is made of plastic.
........................................................................................................................................ [1]
(b) The heater coil is switched on. When the tip is put in contact with the solder, some of the
heat is used to melt the solder.
(i) State the process by which the heat is transferred from the copper tip to the solder.
........................................................................................................................................ [1]
(ii) By which process or processes is the rest of the heat transferred to the surroundings?
Tick the boxes alongside any of the following (you may tick as many as you think are
correct).
Summary
Conduction happens mainly in solids. All atoms vibrate, but vibrate more when heated. Heat
spreads by conduction when atoms increase their vibrations, and pass this energy on to those
nearby. In metals, free electrons carry the heat energy faster than the atomic vibrations......and
transfer it by colliding with other electrons and atoms. Because of this, metals are the best
conductors of heat energy.
Not all metals conduct at the same rate. Liquids and gases are poor conductors of heat hence
they are used as insulators.
References
https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zttrd2p/revision/2
218
http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/physics/conduction-heat-transfer.html
http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/super/therm/tpteacher/demos/woodmetalrod.html
https://www.slideshare.net/hmsoh/coduction-convection-and-radiation
https://igcseaid.wordpress.com/notes/coordinated-science-0654/p6-1-conduction/
http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age11-
14/Heat%20energy/Transfer%20of%20heat%20energy/text/Conduction_of_heat/index.html
219
Lesson 20: Thermal Transfer - Convection
Lesson Introductions
Learning objectives
relate convection in fluids to density changes.
perform and describe experiments to illustrate convection.
identify and explain some of the everyday applications of convection including water heating
system.
identify and explain some of the everyday consequences of convection
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Sample questions
Summary
Task Questions
References
Social context
Ever thought of:
What causes winds?
Why it feels soooo cold when a door is opened on a cold winter day?
Why they put the heating elements of kettles at the bottom of the kettle?
Why smoke move upwards?
220
The answer lies in the concept of convection. When fluids are heated, they expand and
become less dense. This makes them move up (float) above the fluid that is still cold and
more dense.
20.1 Convection in fluids and experiments that illustrate convection.
Convection is the movement of heat in liquids and gases. Liquids and gases are called
fluids because they can to flow. The particles in liquids and gases are not tightly packed
together and so free to move around. When the particles in a liquid or gas with a lot of heat
energy move to take the place of the particles with less heat energy convection is said to take
place and the heat energy is transferred from the hot areas to the cold areas. Let us look at and
use the experiments below to explain how convection occurs.
The purple colour shows the direction in

which the heated fluid moves as the
liquid gets heated. The water molecules at
the bottom gain heat energy from the
flame and vibrate faster and move further
apart. Their density decreases and the
hotter particles rise to the top. The colder
less dense molecules move in to replace
the hotter particles. This continues until
all the water is the same temperature.
Figure 36: Convection in Liquids
Source:
221
Figure 37: Convection in Gases
Source: http://pianoroll.it/update/lab-convection-in-gases-and-liquids-will-both-expand-
5071.php
When a fluid is heated as shown above, its atoms/molecules gain kinetic energy and move
faster. As a result it expands, i.e. the particles take up more volume because the gap between
them widens while the particles themselves stay the same size. The fluid now becomes less
dense and rises above the cooler more dense fluid which sinks to occupy the space left by the
rising less dense fluid. It also gets heated and rises. This creates a circulation of the fluid
called convection currents.
Everyday applications of convection
1. Convection explains why hot air balloons rise
2. Elements in kettles
3. Water heating system
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Figure 38: Convection in a Hot Water System
Source: http://www.thermatechltd.co.uk/solar_water.asp
Surviving smoke in a burning room
Figure 39: Surviving Smoke Through Convection
Warming a room with a radiant heater
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Figure 40: How Convection Warms a Room
Source https://socratic.org/questions/why-does-a-convection-current-move-in-a-circular-
motion
Everyday consequences of convection
1. Why it is often hotter in the upper floor of houses than downstairs.
2. Weather, winds and ocean currents.
3. Sea and land breezes
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Figure 41: Sea and Land Breezes
Source: https://www.examfear.com/notes-dir/00/00/05/00000598.html
Task Questions
The diagram below shows an electric kettle used to heat water.
Explain why the heating element is placed at the bottom of the kettle.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Use arrows to show the direction of the convection current that will be observed?
Explain why the water moves in this direction.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
225
Summary
We have established that convection occurs in gases and liquids. Hot fluids rise, cold
fluids fall. Convection currents occur because heat is lost from the rising fluid, cooling it
down. The whole fluid will rise in temperature as a result of mixing caused by convection
currents.
References
https://www.gcse.com/energy/convection4.htm
https://socratic.org/questions/why-does-a-convection-current-move-in-a-circular-motion
http://pianoroll.it/update/lab-convection-in-gases-and-liquids-will-both-expand-5071.php
http://www.thermatechltd.co.uk/solar_water.asp
https://www.examfear.com/notes-dir/00/00/05/00000598.html
226
Lesson 21: Thermal Transfer - Radiation
Learning objectives
 show understanding of the term radiation (infrared)

 perform and describe experiments to distinguish between good and bad
emitters/absorbers of heat.
 identify and explain some of the everyday applications radiation including Thermos
flask, car cooling system, water heating system.
 identify and explain some of the everyday consequences of radiation including
cyclones, typhoons, days and nights in deserts, global warming and the greenhouse
effect.
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Sample questions
Summary
Task Questions
References
Social context
How does the heat from the sun, the heater, fire reach us? Why do people in the desert wear
white clothes? Or paint their houses white?
227
Figure 42: Dessert Dwellers
Source:https://outdoors.stackexchange.com/questions/5224/are-dark-or-bright-clothings-
preferable-in-the-desert
Heat can also be transferred by infrared radiation. Unlike conduction and convection - which
need particles - infrared radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation that can travel in
vacuum hence does not require particles for its movement. All objects whether hot or cold
radiate heat energy (infra-red radiations). The hotter the object the more heat energy it
radiates. All objects also receive radiation and the exchange of radiant energy is a continuous
process.
21.1 Experiments to distinguish between good and bad emitters/absorbers of heat
Some surfaces are better than others at reflecting and absorbing infrared radiation.
228
Figure 43: Experiment to Show Good and Bad absorbers of Radiation
Identical tubes of aluminium, one painted black while on is left shiny are placed equal
distances from heat saurce as shown above. The temperature of the tubes is monitored over
time. The table below summarises the observed differences:
Surface Absorption Emission
Dull, matt or rough Good Good
Shiny Poor Poor
You can see that dull surfaces are good absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. Shiny
surfaces are poor absorbers and emitters (but they are good reflectors of infrared radiation).
21.2 Everyday applications radiation
229
Cork stopper
Outer case
Figure 44: The Parts of a Thermos Flask and their Functions
Adapted from: https://slideplayer.com/slide/10352597/
Car Cooling System
230
Greenhouses - During the day, infrared radiation from the Sun passes through the glass roof
of the greenhouse. This warms up the soil and plants in the greenhouse. As the contents in the
greenhouse get warm, they emit infrared radiation also. The infrared radiation from the
contents in the greenhouse are not able to pass through the glass roof. Therefore, the infrared
radiation by both the Sun and the contents in the greenhouse gets trapped. The amount of
infrared radiation would then slowly increase over time, causing the temperature in the
greenhouse to increase.
21.3 Everyday consequences of radiation
Cyclones, typhoons, days and nights in deserts, global warming and the greenhouse effect.
Task Questions
1. The diagram below shows some apparatus designed to compare the ability of two surfaces
to absorb infra-red radiation.
The containers, which are identical, are painted on the outside. One is dull black, the other is
shiny white. Both are filled with water, initially at the same temperature.
(a) (i) Describe how you would use the apparatus to compare the abilities of the two surfaces
to absorb and emit infra-red radiation.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
231
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
(4)
(ii) State the result that you would expect.
....................................................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii) State one precaution you would take to ensure that your results are accurate.
....................................................................................................................................................
(1)
Summary
In this lesson we have established that radiation is a transfer of thermal energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves that can also travel through a vacuum. All bodies can receive radiation
and all warm bodies can give it out. But:
Dull dark matt surfaces are good absorbers and good emitters of radiation. For example
the cooling fins on the back of a refrigerator.
Light, shiny surfaces are poor absorbers and poor emitters of radiation. This is why it is
best to wear bright white clothes on a hot day as they reflect the heat and reduce absorption of
the heat energy.
References
http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/physics/radiation-heat-transfer.html
https://outdoors.stackexchange.com/questions/5224/are-dark-or-bright-clothings-preferable-
in-the-desert
232
Lesson 22: Wave Motion
Introduction
Learning objectives
describe wave motion.
define the terms wave front, speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude
sketch and interpret Displacement-Time graphs.
perform experiments to show:
(i) wave motion and wave front
(ii) relationship between speed, frequency and wavelength (v = fλ)
use the wave equation v = fλ.
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Sample questions
Summary
Task Questions
References
Social context
I hope you have played with a rope tied to a tree or you have seen someone doing that and
generating a wave as shown in the diagram below
233
Source: https://www.ck12.org/physics/transverse-wave/lesson/Transverse-Waves-PHYS/
Diagram 1
The diagram above shows one of the experiments that can used to show the wave movement
and wave front. A wave is created by moving the hand up and down. You will a wave
travelling from the hand to the tree and it also shows the wave front as the wave moves. Now
what is a wave?
A wave is a disturbance in matter that transfers energy through the matter. A wave starts
when matter is disturbed, like in the figure above, The boy causes the disturbance. A source
of energy is needed to disturb matter and start a wave. The disturbance causes the particles of
the medium to move to and fro about their rest positions.
To describe a wave the following terms are used
1. Wave front
234
A wave front is an imaginary line or surface that joined all adjacent points which have the
same phase of vibration on the wave. Any two points on a wave are said to be in phase when
they have completed identical fractions of their periodic motion. The diagram above shows
wave fronts in straight waves.
Note: Even though the diagram above shows the wave fronts for all the crests, wave front
does not have to be at the crests!
The diagram below shows wave fronts in circular waves
2. Speed of a wave
Speed of a wave is the distance covered by a wave in one second
Symbol used is “v”
Units are “m/s”
3. Frequency of a wave
Frequency is the number of waves that pass a point in one second.
Symbol used is “f”
Units are hertz “Hz”
235
4. Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance between successive crests or troughs.
Symbol used is lambda “λ”
Units are “m”
5. Amplitude
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of points on a wave
Symbol used is “A”
Units are “m”
The diagram below shows the representation of amplitude and wavelength in a wave diagram
Another representation can be by using a displacement-time graph
236
Now the space between the two successive crests are in the units of time. We call this the
period, the time taken to complete one wave
From diagram 1 above, you can do the following measurements;
1. You follow one wave front and measure time it takes to reach the tree using a stop watch
(t).
2. Count the number of waves between the hand and the tree (n)
3. Measure the distance between the hand and the tree (d).
With the above measurements you can determine
1. speed of the wave (v) by dividing the distance(d) by the time taken (t).
v = d/t
2. the frequency of the waves (f) by dividing the number waves (n) by time taken (t)
f = n/t
3. the wavelength (λ) by diving the distance (d) by the number of waves (n)
λ = d/n
The above quantities should yield the relationship
v = fλ this is called the wave equation
QUESTIONS
1. How is a wave formed?
Answer
237
The particles of a medium are disturbed and start to move to and fro there by transmitting
energy
2. Define the terms
i) Wavelength
ii). Frequency
Answers
i). Wavelength is the distance between two successive waves
ii). Frequency is number of complete waves generated per second
3. The diagram below shows a displacement-time graph for a wave
What are the values of
i). amplitude
ii). Period
Answer
i). 0.50 m
ii). 4.0 s
238
1. A wave is travelling with a speed of 8 m/s and having a frequency of 10 Hz.
Calculate the wavelength
2. A wave has a frequency of 400 Hz and wavelength of 10 cm. How fast is the wave
travelling?
SUMMARY
A wave is caused by a disturbance to the particles of matter.
A wave carries energy along the matter but matter particles move to and fro as the wave
passes.
To describe a wave a terms speed (how fast the wave travels), frequency (how many waves
pass through a point in one second), wavelength (how long is the space between wave crests
or troughs), amplitude (how far a wave is displaced from its rest position) are used
To show how a wave is created a rope can be tied to a tree and held in the hand on the free
end. A wave is generated by moving the hand up and down. A wave is seen moving along the
rope.
Speed of the wave, frequency and wavelength are joined together by the equation
v = fλ this is called the wave equation
REFERENCES
https://www.ck12.org/physics/mechanical-wave/lesson/Mechanical-Wave-MS-PS/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/wave-front-diagram-definition-applications.html
https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Davis/UCD%3A_Physics_7C/0
9%3A_Optics/9.1%3A_Rays_and_Wavefronts
https://www.miniphysics.com/what-is-wave.html
https://www.ck12.org/physics/mechanical-wave/lesson/Mechanical-Wave-MS-PS/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/wave-front-diagram-definition-applications.html
239
https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Davis/UCD%3A_Physics_7C/0
9%3A_Optics/9.1%3A_Rays_and_Wavefronts
https://www.miniphysics.com/what-is-wave.html
LESSON 23: LIGHT
23.1 REFRACTION
Learning objectives
describe and perform experiments to demonstrate refraction of light through transparent

blocks.
use the terminology for the angles i and r in refraction and describe the passage of light
through parallel-sided transparent material.
use the equation sin i/sin r = constant.
give the meaning of refractive index.
understand the terms real depth and apparent depth and use them to determine the refractive
index.
give the meaning of critical angle and total internal reflection.
describe the action of optical fibres.
explain the formation of mirages.
Social context
When a ruler is place in a bowl full of water it appears bent below the surface of the water.
This is because light changes direction when it enters a different medium. E.g. from water
into the air. This effect is called refraction. At times this effect can give a deceiving effect
called mirage. On a sunny day when you look at a far distance on the road, poodles of water
can be seen, but when you get to that point where you saw water, to your surprise there is
nothing. The poodle of water is now another distance away. You can keep trying to go to
poodle and it will keep moving far ahead. This is called mirage and it is the image of the sky
above.
Key issues
Light travels in straight lines but when it passes through a medium of different media of
different optical density it changes direction. This phenomenon is called refraction.
240
Light travels in straight lines and only changes direction on hitting a boundary of a different
medium. When light travels through a different medium of different optical density it changes
its speed of travel and we say it has been diffracted. Diffraction is mostly evident when light
is entering a different medium at an angle of which it will slightly change its direction of
travel.
Below are diagrams illustrating refraction. In our examples air will be used as the less dense
medium and glass will be used as the denser medium.
Case one: light travelling form a less dense medium in to a denser medium
1 light ray passing at an angle of 900
air
glass
2 light ray passing at any angle between 00 and 900
air
glass
Case two: light travelling from a denser medium in to a less dense medium
1 light ray passing at an angle of 900
glass
air
241
2 light ray passing at any angle between 00 and 900
glass
air
Definition of terms.
The light ray falling on to a boundary is called the incident ray.
Where the incident ray hits the boundary, an imaginary line crossing the boundary at 900 is
drawn and it is called the normal line
The angle at which the light ray hit the boundary of the different medium is called the angle
of Incidence I, and it is measured from the normal line and the incident ray
The light ray travelling through the new medium after refraction is called the refracted ray.
The angle between the normal line and the refracted ray is called the angle of refraction r.
An experiment to demonstrate the passage of light through transparent blocks
Apparatus
Ray box with single slit
Power supply
White flat surface (plain paper can be used)
Different transparent blocks
Set up
242
Source: https://www.aplustopper.com/analysing-refraction-waves/
Procedure
Connect the ray box to the power supply and switch it on. With a single slit put in front of the
light source, a single light ray should be produced.
Shine the light across a flat surface. A white plane paper put on top of the desk will work
well.
Put the transparent block on top of the paper such that the light ray cuts the block into half.
Note the path of the light ray through the block.
Rotate the block in its horizontal plane and note the changes to the path of the light ray.
Use different blocks repeating the steps to experiment on the path produced.
Light path through a parallel sided block
Light passes through a parallel sided block such that the incident ray and the emergent ray are
parallel to each other. The emergent ray is the ray that emerges on the other side of the
medium.
Real and Apparent depth
When an object is under water and viewed from above the image seen is not the real object
because the rays coming from the object get refracted at the surface of the water forming a
virtual image of the object. The image is seen at a depth called the apparent depth rather than
the real depth where the object really is.
243
Diagram below illustrates the scenario.
Source; https://wssscience.weebly.com/uploads/5/8/2/9/58298897/physics-criticalangle.pdf
Refractive index
When a light ray from air enters into water at an angle it bends slightly but when passes
through a Perspex block it bends even more. Different materials have different magnitude at
which they bend on coming light rays. This is known as the refractive index n.
The refractive index of a material is given by
n =sin i/Sin r
where
n is the refractive index
i is the angle of incidence
r is the angle of refraction
The refractive index can also be calculated from
Refractive index = real depth/apparent depth
n-RD/AD
where
n is the refractive index
RD is the real depth
AP is the apparent depth
244
Task questions
Q1. What is the refractive index of a glass given that a light ray incident on a rectangular
glass block at an angle of 450 is refracted at an angle of 300?
___________________________
Q2. Given that a pebble 2m deep under water is seen to be at a depth of 1.5m calculate the
refractive index of water
___________________________
Q3. Using your answer on question 2, at what depth will the pebble appear if it was placed at
the bottom of a pool 3m deep?
___________________________
Total Internal Reflection
When a light ray is travelling from a denser medium in to a less dense medium, an interesting
phenomenon occurs. At some point the incident ray disappears from the less dense medium
and is seen to be reflected back into the denser medium. This is called Total Internal
Reflection. This happens when the angle of incidence is equal to an angle called the critical
angle c, which is the angle at which the light ray is totally internally reflected
Consider the diagrams below
Case 1: angle of incidence i smaller than the critical angle c. i<c
Refracted ray
245
Incident ray Partially reflected ray
Case 2: i=c
Case 3: i>c
Optical fibre
Optical fibres are a technology application of total internal reflection. This can be used in
telecommunications and making endoscopes. An optical fibre is made of a flexible glass
cable with a less dense material. A light ray carrying signal is shone into the tube at an angle
greater than the critical angle of the glass cable. This light ray will undergo total internal
reflection at every point it hits the walls of the glass cable ending up trapped inside until it
emerges from the other side of the cable.
246
Source: http://www.one-school.net/Malaysia/Universityand College/SPM/revisioncard/
physics/light/totalinternalrefraction.html
Formation of mirage
Source; https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-mirage-1
A mirage is a natural phenomenon in which poodles of water are seen at a distant in a sunny
day. The water always appears to be at a distant and can never be reached because they are
virtual images of the sky. They are formed when a light ray from the sky above gradually gets
refracted through different layers of air above a hot surface until they are totally internally
reflected back in to the air causing mirage when falling on to the observer’s eyes.
Task questions
Q1. What is meant by the angle of incidence?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
247
Q2. Calculate the refractive index of a transparent block given that a light ray incident on it at
450 is refracted at 300
_________________________________
Q3. For the diagrams below, Medium A is less dense than Medium B.
Diagram 1 Diagram 2 Diagram 3
Medium A Medium A Medium A
Medium B Medium B Medium B
Which diagram is not a true representation of a light ray path?
___________________________
Key terms
Refractive index-the degree at which a material bends light
Questions
Q1. Describe how you would carry out an experiment to find ray path through a rectangular
glass block
248
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Q2. Differentiate between real and apparent depths.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q3. A light ray fall in to a Perspex block of refractive index equal to 1.5 at an angle of 25 0.
Calculate the angle at which the light ray will be refracted.
__________________________
Q4. Which statements are true about Total Internal Reflection?
It only occurs when light is travelling form a denser medium into a less dense medium
It happens the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
Total internal reflection when a light ray is falling through the normal
During total internal reflection the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
When the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the angle of refraction is equal to
900
Total internal reflection occurs when light is travelling form a less dense medium in to a
denser medium
________________________________________________________________________
Q5. Use diagrams to explain how mirage is formed
249
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Q6. Use the diagram below to answer the question that follows.
air
water
3m
Source: http://www.physics.louisville.edu/cldavis/phys299/notes/lo_appdepth.html
Calculate the depth at which the fish is seen by the fisher man
___________________________________
250
Summary
The light ray falling on to a boundary is called the incident ray.
The angle at which the light ray hit the boundary of the different medium is called the angle
of Incidence i.
The light ray travelling through the new medium after refraction is called the refracted ray.
The angle between the normal line and the refracted ray is called the angle of refraction r.
A light ray incident from a less dense medium is refracted towards the normal and away from
the normal if it is travelling from a denser medium.
The refractive index of a medium is the extent at which it bends light and it is given by
n =sin i/Sin r and n = real depth/apparent depth
Total internal reflection happens when the angle of incidence is equal to an angle called the
critical angle c.
Optical fibre is an application of total internal reflection which traps light to travel from one
end of a flexible glass rod to the other without escaping or losing its intensity.
Mirage occurs naturally and it is total internal reflection of a light ray from the sky falling on
a hot road foaming virtual image of the sky to appear as water at a distant.
23.2 LENSES
Learning objectives
differentiate between the converging and diverging lenses.
describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light.
use and understand the meaning of the terms focal length, principal focus and principal axis
with respect to a thin converging lens.
draw ray diagrams to illustrate the formation of real and virtual images of an object by a thin
converging lens.
use and describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass.
describe the use of a single lens to form a real image, e.g. a camera, a projector, a
photographic enlarger.
251
social context
We always see people around wearing reading glasses. This is redirect light to the part of the
where it can be interpreted as clear image. There are several objects in which light path is
being redirected to our liking to come up with the intended images examples are a camera,
binoculars, photocopier and a projector. All these objects make use of a shaped glass to make
light travel in a particular way/path.
key issues
People were spectacles to see better. This is because lenses use the refraction to direct light
rays to a desired path hence light can be manipulated to our will.
The glass that is used to change the path of travel of light is called a lens. It is used in the
objects listed above. There are two basic types of lenses, converging and diverging lens.
Convex lens (converging)
It is thick at the centre and thin around its edges.
Concave lens (diverging)
It is thin at the centre and thick around the edge.
Convex lens in action
A convex lens converges on coming parallel light rays to a single point called the focus
252
Ray diagram of a convex lens
Lens
Focus
principal axis 3 2
Optical centre
Focal length
figure : Diagram showing construction of ray paths
Definition of terms
Principal axis-it is a line passing through the centre of the lens at 900
Principal focus-it is the point at which on coming parallel light rays are converged to. It is
half of the radius of curvature of the lens.
Focal length-this is the distance between the centre of the lens and the principal focus.
Ray paths through a convex lens
A light ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the focus
253
A light ray passing through the centre of the less continues straight through without changing
direction
A light ray coming through the principal focus is refracted parallel to the principal axis
Images formed by a convex lens
Case 1: object placed beyond 2F
Source: https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/showthread.php?t=2714198
Image characteristics
Size-smaller than the object, diminished
Position-between F and 2F on the other side of the lens
Orientation-upside down, inverted
Nature-real (can be projected on to a screen)
Case 2: object placed at 2F
Size-same size as the object
Position-at 2F on the other side of the lens

254
Orientation-inverted
Nature-real
Case 3: object placed between F and 2F
Size-larger than the object, enlarged
Position-beyond 2F on the other side of the lens
Orientation- inverted
Nature-real
Case 4: object placed at F
Size-enlarged
Position-at infinity
Orientation-inverted
Nature-real
Case 5: object placed between the lens and F

255
Image charateristics
Size-enlarged, magnified
Position-behind the object
Orientation-up right, erect
Nature-virtual (cannot be projected on to a screen)
Convex lens applications
Thin lens used as a magnifying glass
To use a thin lens as a magnifying lens, the object has to be placed between the lens and its
focus. A virtual magnified erect image of the object will be formed.
Using thin lens to form real images
Projector-
A thin lens can be used as a projector. For it to function as one the object should be placed
between 2F and F. In this arrangement large real image will be formed. Note that this image
will be upside down hence the object has to be placed upside down to have a relatively
upright image.
Photocopier-
In a photocopier an object which can be a picture or text is placed at 2F and copy of the same
size as the original is formed which will be printed on a printing paper as a photocopy.
Camera
256
In a camera the object is placed beyond 2F. A diminished upside down true copy of the object
will be focused on to a light sensitive film which will capture the details of the image
including its colour.
Task questions
Q1. Differentiate between a converging and a diverging lens
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
Q2. What is the focal length of a lens?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________
Q3. What is the nature of an image formed by a convex lens when the object is place between
the lens and the focus?
___________________________________________________________________________
Key terms
Nature of an image is whether it is real or virtual
Converging-all light rays are diverted towards each other
Diverging-light rays are diverted away from each other
Questions
Q1. An object is placed in front of a convex lens. The image formed is real and enlarged.
Where is the object placed?
__________________________________________
Q2. Draw a ray diagram illustrating a case when an image formed by a convex lens is same
size as the object.
257
Q3. Describe how you can use a convex lens as a magnifying lens.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q4. How is an image formed by a projector different from an image formed by a camera?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q5. State the characteristics of an image formed when the object is placed very far from the
lens.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q6. Complete the diagram below by drawing light rays and the image formed.
Summary
There are two types of lenses convex and concave lens
When drawing ray diagrams the lens, the object, the principal axis, the principal focus, light
rays and the image has to be drawn.
Images formed by a convex lens
Object Characteristics of the image formed Application

Position
258
size position orientation nature
1 Beyond 2F Small Between F inverted real Camera
and 2F
2 At 2F Same size At 2F inverted real Photocopier
3 Between F Large Beyond 2F inverted real Projector

and 2F
4 At F Large At infinity inverted real Search light
5 Between F Magnified Behind the upright virtual Magnifying

and the object Glass
lens
REFERENCES.
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refrn
https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/showthread.php?t=2714198
Michael Shephard, Revise Physics. 1986
http://www.one-
school.net/Malaysia/UniversityandCollege/SPM/revisioncard/physics/light/totalinternalrefrac
tion.html
http://www.physics.louisville.edu/cldavis/phys299/notes/lo_appdepth.html
259
LESSON25: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
25.1: ELECTROMAGNETIVE SPECTRUM
Introduction
Learning objectives
 describe the main components of the electromagnetic spectrum.

 state and describe their methods of detection.
 state the uses, sources and side effects of the components of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Sample questions
Summary
Task Questions
References
Social context
When you look around you can see and understand the world around you, thanks to the
visible light which we cannot see without. In the dark our eyes cannot see anything, but an
infrared camera can still show images of hot objects in the dark. We are so used to cooking
using fire or heat, but a microwave is capable of heating food substances without the use of
fire or heat, it uses micro waves. We are also able to see and hear what is happening on the
other side of the world through radio and television by capturing the invisible pictures and
sound in the air using aerials and satellite dishes. All these are examples of electromagnetic
waves which are a combination of electric and magnetic waves. There are several more
which will be covered in this topic.
260
Key issues
We are surrounded by electromagnetic waves which enable us to see, communicate, treat

diseases e.t.c. though they are very useful to us some do have their negative impact to us.
The waves mentioned above are a part of seven waves in the family of waves called the
electromagnetic spectrum. The seven waves are radio, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultra
violet, x-rays and gamma rays. In this order they form the electromagnetic spectrum in
ascending order of frequency and decrease in wavelength. Below is a summary of the
electromagnetic spectrum order.
INCREASE IN FREQUENCY
Visible Ultra Gamma

Radio Microwave Infrared X-Ray
Light Violet Ray
DECREASE IN WAVELENGTH
Figure 1: The electromagnetic spectrum
Radio Waves
Radio waves has the lowest frequency and longest wavelength in spectrum. These are
produced by oscillating electrons in wires. Aerials are used to detect radio waves in space.
Radio waves are the technology behind wireless communication from radio to television and
internet. Long waves can be blocked by the ionosphere hence short waves are used to make
satellite communication beyond the ionosphere. Radio waves has negligible effect on human
beings and animals.
Microwaves
Microwaves are radio waves of very high frequency short wavelengths produced by electrons
vibrating at very high speeds in wires. Micro waves can be produced from a magnetron and
261
are detected by microwave antennas and food substances. These waves can cause a heating
effect in tissues and food substance and it is used in microwave ovens for cooking and in
radar for communication.
Infrared
Infrared is radiated from hot surfaces. Their wavelengths are much dependent on the
temperature of the radiating body. Long wavelength and shorter as the temperature increases.
Infrared cannot be detected by human eye even though objects producing visible light also
produce infrared. This radiation can be detected by the skin, thermometers and photographic
film. Infrared is used in night vision cameras, in remote control, cellular phones, drying and
treatment of muscular pains. This radiation causes heating effect which may cause damage to
tissues.
Visible Light
Visible light is produced by white hot objects examples being the sun and filament in a bulb.
It is detected very well by the eye and it is the reason behind us being able to see. It is also
detected by photographic films and phototransistors. Visible light is used for vision and
photography. It can be cause damage to the retina causing eye problems
Ultra-Violet
Very hot object beyond the visible light produces Ultra-Violent radiation which falls just
after the colour violet of the white light spectrum. A good source of this radiation is the sun
and a UV lamp. This radiation can be detected by photographic films and fluorescent
materials which fluoresce ‘glow’ when UV light falls on them. UV radiation is used in
security to detect fake features and in sun beds. Ultra-Violet radiation can be very harmful
when overdosed. It caused skin cancer when exposed to in overdose and can cause blindness
when looked into directly.
X-Rays
X-rays are produced when an electron travelling at high speed hits a metal target. A good
example of its source is an X-ray machine. X-rays can be detected by photographic films.
Their important use is in radiography in taking X-ray images, in crystallography for scientific
researches and in killing diseased tissues. X-rays are very harmful when exposed to the skin
in overdoses. This may cause damage to tissues.
262
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays have the highest frequency and the shortest wavelength of all the
electromagnetic waves. These are produced by decaying radioactive nuclei. They can be
detected by and are used in killing of cancerous cell. They have the most penetrating effect
because and are very dangerous as the can kill living cells causing cancer.
Task questions
Q1. Name three electromagnetic waves that you know.
___________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Which of the following waves has the highest frequency?
x-ray, radio wave and ultra violet
_____________________________
Q3. Describe how radio waves are produced
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Key terms
Electromagnetic waves: Waves made of a combination of electric and magnetic waves and
traveling at the speed of light in space.
Frequency: The number of complete waves produced in one second.
Questions
Q1. State two uses of infra-red.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Which electromagnetic wave has the highest penetrating power?
________________________________________
Q3. Name three EM waves that may be used for communication.
___________________________________________________________________________
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Q4. Which EM wave has the longest wavelength?
________________________________________
Q5. State the effect that may be caused by long exposure to x-ray radiations.
___________________________________________________________________________
Q6. What is the electromagnetic spectrum?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Summary
Source: https://tinycards.duolingo.com/decks/3xmpRLHJ/basic-electromagnetic-spectrum-
em-spectrum
No WAVE PRODUCTI SOURCES DETECTION SCREENING DANGE USES

TYPE ON RS
1 RADIO Electrons Transmitters Aerials Metal plates, In wireless
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oscillating in ionosphere communic
wires ation
2 MICROW Electron Magnetrons, Food Metal plates Can cause In
AVE vibrating in transmitters substances heating microwave
wires at effect ovens for
higher speeds cooking
and radars
3 INFRA- Hot objects Infrared Photographic Shinny Can cause In night
RED bulbs film, surfaces damage to vision
thermometers tissues cameras
and
remote
controls
4 VISIBLE Very hot Light bulbs, The eye, Opaque Can cause Vision and
LIGHT objects sun photosensors substances eye photograp
and damage hy
photographic
film
5 ULTRA- Arcs and gas Sun, UV Fluorescent Ozone layer Cause Security
VIOLET discharges lights objects skin and sun
tanning beds
and can
cause
blindness
6 X-RAYS Electrons x-ray gun Photographic Metal plate Can Radiograp
hitting metal and cosmos film damage hy and
targets tissues killing of
diseased
tissues
7 GAMMA Radioactive Geiger tube lead Can cause Killing of
RAYS nuclei cancer cancerous
cells
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Lesson 25.2 SPEED OF EM WAVES
Learning objectives
state that all e.m. waves travel with the same high speed in vacuum.
sate the magnitude of this speed.
use the wave equation c = f λ in simple calculations.
All EM waves travel at the speed of light, c, which is equal to 3x108m/s in vacuum. This
speed can be easily calculated from the wave equation:
c=fλ
where:
c is the speed of light or electromagnetic wave
f is the frequency of the EM wave
λ (lambda) is the wave wavelength of the EM wave.
Task questions
Q1. State the speed of EM waves.
___________________________
Q2. Calculate the speed of a wave of wavelength 7 x 10-7m and a frequency of 4.28571
x1014Hz?
_____________________________
Q3. Which of the following statements is NOT true about electromagnetic waves?
All EM waves travel at the speed of 3x108 m/s in air

266
All EM waves travel at the speed of light in vacuum
All EM waves travel at the same speed
________________________________
Key terms
Frequency: the numbers of complete wave produced in a second.
Vacuum: space with no air
Wavelength: it is the distance between two successive wave crests or troughs. It can be taken
as the length of a full wave.
Hertz: is the unit for frequency representing per second (1/s).
Questions
Q1. What is the wavelength of a wave that produces 7.5x108 complete waves every second?
________________________________________
Q2. You want to listen to radio Kgaso so you tune your radio to 93.0 MHz. What is the
wavelength of the waves you tuned to?
__________________________________
Q3. How many waves are produced in an X-ray gun that produces waves 10-10m long?
__________________________________
Summary
267
Speed of EM waves (c) in space is taken as 3x108m/s
The wave equation is given by the frequency of the wave multiplied by its wavelength
c=fλ
Frequency f is the number of complete waves produced every second.
Wavelength λ is the length of the wave measured from one point to the next similar point on
the wave.
REFERENCES
https://study.com/academy/lesson/electromagnetic-spectrum-and-waves-definition-
categories.html
268
LESSON 27: SOUND
Learning objectives
describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves and describe compression and rarefaction.
state the approximate range of audible frequencies for human beings, dogs and bats.
state the uses of ultra-sonic sound waves.
understand noise pollution.
perform an experiment to determine the speed of sound in air and make necessary
calculations.
state the order of magnitude of the speed of sound in gases , liquids and solids.
describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo.
perform an experiment to relate the loudness and pitch of sound to amplitude and frequency
respectively.
describe the factors which influence the quality (timber) of sound waves.
describe the effect of multiple reflections of sound waves (acoustics) on the quality of sound.
Social context
How do we hear sounds?
27.1 The longitudinal nature of sound waves - compression and rarefaction.
Sound travels in the form of waves which are generated by vibrating particles. When a
surface vibrates, it generates a sound wave. For instance, in a sounding loudspeaker, the cone
vibrates in and out, alternately pulling and pushing at the air molecules in front of the cone.
This produces a sound wave consisting of a series of expansions (or rarefactions) and
compressions of the air in front of the cone.
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Figure 45 Waves: Longitudinal Nature of Sound
Figure 46: A longitudinal Wave Moving in a Spring
The number of compressions or rarefactions produced per second is the frequency (f) of the
sound wave. The distance from the centre of one compression to the centre of the next
compression is the wavelength (λ).
Task Questions 1
1. The diagram below shows how the air pressure at one instant varies with distance along
the path of a continuous sound wave.
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(a) What type of waves are sound waves?
............................................................................................................................................... [1]
(b) On the diagram, mark on the axis PY:
(i) one point C where there is a compression in the wave, [1]
(ii) one point R where there is a rarefaction in the wave. [1]
(c) Describe the motion of a group of air particles situated on the path of the wave shown in
in the diagram above.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................[2]
(d) The sound wave shown has speed of 340 m/s and a frequency of 200 Hz.
Calculate the wavelength of the wave.
wavelength = ........................[2]
2. The diagram below shows the cone of a loudspeaker that is producing sound waves in air.
At any given moment, a series of compressions and rarefactions exist along the line XY.
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(a) On the diagram, use the letter C to mark three compressions and the letter R to mark three
rarefactions along XY.
[1]
(b) Explain what is meant by
(i) a compression,
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
(ii) a rarefaction.
.....................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
[2]
(c) A sound wave is a longitudinal wave. With reference to the sound wave travelling along
XY in Fig. 2.1, explain what is meant by a longitudinal wave.
.....................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................ [2]
(d) There is a large vertical wall 50 m in front of the loudspeaker. The wall reflects the sound
waves.
The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
Calculate the time taken for the sound waves to travel from X to the wall and to return to X.
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time = ……………………[2]
27.2 Experiment to show that sound cannot travel in vacuum
The fact that air is needed for sound to be heard may be shown by pumping the air out of a
‘bell jar’ containing a ringing electric bell.
Figure 47: An Experiment to show that Sound Cannot Travel in Vacuum
As the air is pumped out of the jar, the ringing sound gradually fades away. Eventually the
sound cannot be heard even though the striker can still be seen striking the gong. If the air is
let back into the jar, the sound of the ringing bell returns.
This shows that:
Sound cannot travel in Vacuum
Task Questions 2
4 Fig. 4.1 shows an electric bell that is suspended in a glass bell-jar. A vacuum pump slowly
removes air from the bell-jar.
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(a) State and explain what happens to the sound heard as air is removed from the bell-jar.
.........................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................... [2]
27.3 The approximate range of audible frequencies for human beings, dogs and bats
An average human being cannot hear all the sounds. The average human’s audible range is
from 20 hertz to 20,000 hertz. Sounds below 20 hertz and above 20,000 hertz cannot be heard
by humans. This range may differ slightly from person to person and tends to get smaller as
you get older. Sounds above 20 000Hz are called supersonic sounds or simply ultra sounds.
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Figure 48: Range of Infrasounds, Audible Sounds and Ultrasounds
Source: http://www.cochlea.org/en/hear/human-auditory-range
27.4 Uses of ultra-sonic sound waves
Echo Sounding - This technique is used to:
Detect defects or flaws inside pieces of metal.
Find the depth of the ocean
To find a large shoal of fish
Ultrasound Scanning - Ultrasound echoes are used in detecting the heartbeat of unborn
babies.
Range and Direction Finding- used mostly by sailors.
Bats use ultrasound echoes to build up an image of their environment in darkness. They can
locate insects for food in the air and know their speed and direction by analysing the reflected
sound.
Break up kidney stones without surgery
Cleaning delicate machinery - Ultrasound in liquids can be used to clean precious or

delicate items because the compressions and rarefactions will shake dirt and unwanted
material free without the risk of damage being caused by handling the item.
27.5 Noise Pollution
Hearing can be damaged by being close to very loud sounds over a long period of time.
Hearing very loud machinery or music when you are young can result in less sensitive
hearing when you are older. Unwanted sound is sometimes called noise pollution. Noise
pollution can cause serious distress. If you live in a noisy environment, for example near an
airport or railway, the noise that you hear can be reduced by double glazing. If someone is
working with noisy power tools, for example a drill or a saw, they can wear ear defenders.
Ear defenders look like headphones or ear muffs.
27.6 Reflection of Sound - Echo
Sound waves are reflected well from hard, flat surfaces (e.g. smooth walls or cliffs). The
reflected sound forms an ECHO. When a sound is reflected, it follows the same law as for
light reflection (i.e. angle of incidence = angle of reflection). Echoes can be heard in large
halls having bare, smooth walls. If the walls are covered in soft fabric, the sound is absorbed
and no echoes are heard. If the wall surface is rough and uneven, the sound is scattered and
no echoes are heard. Also If the reflecting wall is too close, the reflected sound is heard along
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with the original sound making it sound like the sound was produced multiple times. This is
called a reverberation. This can affect the quality of sound.
27.7 Experiment to determine the speed of sound in air
Pistol method
Neo and Lone stand at a distance s apart and with a measuring tape, measure and record s.
(must be more than 1km). Neo fires a starting pistol. Lone starts the stopwatch on seeing the
flash of the pistol and stops the stopwatch when he hears the sound. The time t, is recorded.
The speed of sound v can be calculated by:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑠
𝑣=
𝑡
For better accuracy, the experiment should be repeated and the average speed of sound can be
calculated. The experiment can be repeated by interchanging the positions of Neo and Lone
so as to minimise the effect of the wind direction.
Echo method
Neo and Lone are positioned a distance s from the wall and with a measuring tape, measure
and record the distance s. Neo claps two wooden blocks and Lone starts the clock. On hearing
the echo Lone stops the clock and record time tn. The speed of sound is then calculated from:
2𝑠
𝑣=
𝑡
For a more accurate measurement, Neo claps and Lone starts the stopwatch. On hearing the
echo, Neo claps again in the rhythm of clap-echo-clap-echo for n number of times while the
time is running continuously. Now the speed becomes:
2𝑛𝑠
𝑣=
𝑡
Where n is the number of claps.
Task Questions 3
1. Two students are asked to determine the speed of sound in air on the school playing fields.
(a) List the apparatus they need.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
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................................................................................................................................................ [2]
(b) List the readings that the students need to take.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................ [2]
(c) State how the speed of sound is calculated from the readings.
................................................................................................................................................ [1]
(d) The table gives some speeds.
Speeds/m/s Air Water Concrete
10
100
1000
6000
Place a tick in the table to show the speed which is closest to
(i) the speed of sound in air,
(ii) the speed of sound in water.
(iii) the speed of sound in concrete
[3]
2. Observations of a distant thunderstorm are made.
(a) During a lightning flash, the average wavelength of the light emitted is 5 × 10 –7 m. This
light travels at 3 × 108 m/s.
Calculate the average frequency of this light.
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frequency = ...................................... [2]
(b) The interval between the lightning flash being seen and the thunder being heard is
3.6 s. The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
(i) Calculate the distance between the thunderstorm and the observer.
distance = ............................................
[2]
3. Ultrasound can be used by fishing vessels to find the depth of the sea or to locate shoals of
fish. The diagram shows the transmission and reflection of ultra-sound from a fishing vessel.
(a) What is ultrasound?
................................................................................................................................................ [1]
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(b) State two differences between ultrasound waves and radio waves.
......................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................[2]
(c) The speed of ultrasound in water is 1500 m/s.
(i) The frequency of the ultrasound used for depth finding is 50 000 Hz. Calculate the
wavelength of the ultrasound.
wavelength = …………………………..[2]
(ii) On the diagram the depth of the sea is 1200 m. Calculate the time it would take for the
ultrasound wave to travel from the transmitter to the sea-bed and back to the receiver.
time = …………………………..[2]
27.8 The order of magnitude of the speed of sound in gases, liquids and solids
Sound is fastest in solids since particles are closer together for waves to travel through them
and slowest in the air because the particles are farther away from each other and below are
the typical speeds in different states of matter:
The speed of sound in air: 330m/s
The speed of sound in liquids: 1500m/s
The speed of sound in solids: 6000 m/s
27.9 Loudness and Pitch of sound
What is the Loudness of a Sound Wave?
If you are told, “speak aloud” what often do you do? That is loudness….I think of it as
volume. The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of the wave. The bigger the
amplitude the louder the sound.
What is the Pitch of a Sound Wave?
Think about a choir. How is a choir arranged? Normally according to the “thinness” of their
voices with the highest “thinness” ..sopranos.. in the front and the thinness diminishes as we
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go to the far back to the bass. This is pitch…Pitch is a term used to describe how high or low
a note being played by a musical instrument or sung seems to be. The pitch of a sound (how
high the note is) depends on the frequency of the wave. The higher the frequency, the higher
the pitch.
Questions 4
1. The diagram shows the oscilloscope traces of two different sounds P and Q. The
oscilloscope setting is exactly the same in both cases.
P and Q sound different. Write down two differences in the way they sound. Explain your
answers as fully as you can.
1 ............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
2 ............................................................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
2. Naledi produced two notes on her keyboard. The diagram below shows the trace on an
oscilloscope screen produced by the first of the two notes.
The second note is louder and has a higher pitch.
(i) On the diagram, continue the trace to show what happens when the second note is
sounding. [2]
27.10The factors which influence the quality (timber) of sound waves
But how do you explain how a “la” note played on the piano sound the same but at the same
time different from a “la” played on a flute? Basically, if we only have 8 main musical notes,
then why do we need so many different musical instruments? The answer is in the quality of
the sounds that can be produced by different instruments.
The Quality of Sound is often called timbre or tonal colour. It is the unique sound that makes
a flute sound different than a clarinet or French horn or oboe. The same note played on
different instruments sounds different because the notes have a different waveform since they
are never pure notes, i.e. they are not of one frequency; with the exception of a tuning fork.
We say that the notes have different QUALITY. They consist of one main note/frequency –
the fundamental frequency- which is predominant and other smaller notes/frequencies
called overtones. The main note or fundamental note is also referred to as the first harmonic
and if it has a frequency f, the overtone with frequency 2f is called the second harmonic and
the overtone with frequency 3f is called the third harmonic and so on. The sum of all the
harmonics is the waveform and determines the quality of the sound.
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Fundamental note/frequency Overtone Note of specific quality
With a pure note
Task questions 5
What is meant by an overtone?
..................................................................................................................................... [1]
Use ideas about waves to explain the terms
(i) loudness
......................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................ [2]
(ii) pitch
......................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................ [2]
quality (timbre) of a musical note.
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......................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................... [2]
Summary
We have just gathered that sound is a longitudinal wave caused by vibrations. It does not
travel in vacuum will travel in solids (where it is fastest), liquids (second fastest) and in gases
(last fastest). Sound can be reflected to produce an echo. The echo can be used to determine
the speed of sound in air. Humans can only hear sounds of frequency range of 20Hz – 20,000
Hz. Any sounds above this range are referred to as ultra sounds. These can be used in several
ways including communication by animals, scanning, cleaning delicate machinery, treating
kidney stones; etc. The loudness of a sound depends on its amplitude, high amplitude, high
loudness. The pitch of a sound depends on the frequency of the sound, the higher the
frequency the higher the pitch. The quality of a sound is affected by overtones imposed on
the fundamental frequency by the instruments.
References
https://igcseaid.wordpress.com/notes/coordinated-science-0654/p10-0-sound/
https://braingenie.ck12.org/skills/103843/learn
http://www.gcsescience.com/pwav12.htm
http://www.cochlea.org/en/hear/human-auditory-range
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LESSON 28: MAGNETISM
Learning objectives
state the properties of magnets.
distinguish between magnetic and non-magnetic materials.
Social context
As kids we used to play with the black metals which picked up little pieces of metals as we
moved it on the ground as shown in the picture below.
The object in the figure above is called a magnet. A magnet is a material that produces a
magnetic field. How can you tell that something is a magnet? It should exhibit the following
properties:
1. Magnets attract magnetic materials like iron, steel, cobalt, and nickel. Any material that is
not attracted by a magnet is called a non-magnetic material. The metal pieces in the above
figure are magnetic materials.
2. Magnets have two poles North (N) and South (S). There is no magnet with only one pole.
When a magnet breaks it will still have the two poles. If the above magnet breaks into two
halves, its poles will be like as shown in the figure below
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3. When a magnet is freely suspended like the one shown in the figure below, will rest with
its N pole pointing towards the Earth’s N pole. It is called the north seeking pole, because it
always points towards it when it rests.
4. Like poles of a magnet repel and the unlike poles attract each other. If you bring the N and
S close to each other they will pull each other (attract). If you bring N and N or S and S they
push each other away (repel).
Question
1. Give any two properties of magnets
Answer
i). Magnets attract only magnetic materials
ii). Magnets always have two poles
2. Distinguish between magnetic materials and non-magnetic materials
Answer
Magnetic materials are attracted by magnets while non-magnetic materials are not attracted
by magnets
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3. Give any two magnetic materials.
Answer
Iron, Nickel
SUMMARY
A magnet is a an objects that creates a magnetic field and has the following properties
i) Magnets attract only magnetic materials
ii) Magnets have two poles, N and S
iii) A freely suspended magnet always rests with its N pole pointing towards earth’s N pole.
iv) Unlike poles of magnets attract and like poles repel each other.
Magnetic materials are materials that are attracted by magnets and non-magnetic materials
are those that are not attracted by magnets.
REFERENCES
https://www.toppr.com/guides/science/fun-with-magnets/properties-and-application-of-
magnet/
http://oldschool.com.sg/module/PublicAccess/action/Wrapper/sid/1ae7eed744e6441bcc3e2d1
bf8dce67a/qn_id/23902
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LESSON 29: MAGNETISING AND DEMAGNETISING
Learning objectives
describe the phenomenon of induced magnetism.
describe different methods of magnetization e.g. electricity, stroking, etc.
describe different methods of demagnetization e.g. electricity, hitting and heating.
Social context
To make a screw driver to pick up metal screws, it is rubbed on permanent magnet. The
screw driver is said to be magnetized.
When a non-magnetized magnetic material is brought near or touches a magnet, it behaves as

a magnet itself. We say the magnetic material has induced magnetism at that time. This is one
of the ways in which a magnetic material can be made to become a magnet (magnetization).
Methods of magnetization
There are other ways in which a magnetic material can be made a magnet, these include:
Stroking
To magnetize a magnetic material, stroke the magnetic material with a permanent magnet.
The magnetic poles are aligned in one direction. The diagram below shows this action.
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Source: http://olevelphysicsblog.blogspot.com/2010/12/magnetisation-and-
demagnetisation.html
Electricity
When using a direct current electricity source the same action of aligning the poles also
happen. The battery supplies direct current to the coiled wire. The coiled wire become
magnetic and magnetizes the iron nail. The nail attracts the paper clips, this shows that the
nail is now a magnet.
Methods of demagnetization
To demagnetize means to make a magnet lose its magnetism. There are several ways to
achieve this.
288
Magnets are made up of atoms. In normal environmental conditions, these atoms align
between the poles and foster magnetism. When exposed to hotter conditions, the
particles within the magnet are moving at an increasingly faster and sporadic rate. This
jumbling confuses and misaligns the particles, causing the magnetism to be lost.
In addition to heating you can get the same effect by repeatedly hammering a magnet,
applying pressure, or dropping it on a hard surface. The physical disruption and vibration
shake the order out of the material, demagnetizing it.
One way to make a magnet is by applying an electrical field (electromagnet), so it makes

sense you can use alternating current to remove magnetism, too. To do this, you pass AC
current through a solenoid. Start with a higher current and slowly reduce it until it's zero.
Alternating current rapidly switches directions, changing the orientation of the
electromagnetic field. The magnetic dipoles try to orient according to the field, but since it's
changing, they end up randomized. The core of the material may retain a slight magnetic field
due to hysteresis.
289
QUESTIONS
1. Describe the term induced magnetism
Answer
When a material behaves as a magnet. The domains in a magnetic material are aligned in one
direction when a magnet is near it.
2. Describe how a magnetic material can be magnetized using electricity.
Answer
Place the magnetic material in a solenoid carrying direct current
1. Describe how a magnetic material can be magnetized using stroking method.
2. Describe how to demagnetized a magnet using electricity
SUMMARY
A magnetic material is made up of little magnets called domains. When the little magnets are
aligned in direction then material has magnetic properties, hence it’s a magnet. To make the
magnet materials to become magnets we call it magnetization. To magnetize materials,
stroking and using direct current is used.
To make the magnets lose their magnetism, it is called demagnetization. To demagnetize

magnets, methods like heating, hammering (hitting), dropping and using alternating current.
REFERENCES
http://osboskovic.edu.rs/dev/gimnazija/sites/default/files/magnetism.pdf
http://www.daviddarling.info/childrens_encyclopedia/Magnetism_For_Kids.html
https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-demagnetize-a-magnet-607873
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LESSON 30: MAGNETIC FIELD
Learning objectives
describe and demonstrate methods of detecting a magnetic field around a magnet.
use iron fillings to show the pattern of field lines of a magnetic field of a bar magnet.
use a plotting compass to plot the field lines of a magnetic field of a bar magnet.
Social context
A plotting compass is used to show the direction of the earth’s North Pole so that we get the
bearing of our position. With that information we can determine the direction of the four
cardinal points N, E S, and W. This is possible because the earth behaves like a gigantic
magnet.
In our last lesson we looked at how materials can be magnetized. A magnetized material has
a magnetic field around it; this is the area around a magnet where its effect can be felt. Now
how can we detect that there is magnetism since it is invisible? To detect the field we need a
plotting compass. A compass contains a small bar magnet on a pivot so that it can rotate
To show the magnetic field around a magnet, iron fillings are used. The following procedure
can be followed.
291
Using Iron Filings
Procedure:
Step 1: Place a hard thin piece of plastic on the magnet;
Step 2: Sprinkle iron filings around it;
Step 3: Tap the plastic gently and the iron filings will arrange themselves in a pattern that is similar to the
magnetic field pattern.
Step 4: Use a plotting compass to find the direction of the magnetic field lines.
The pattern below is obtained.
Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/science/fun-with-magnets/properties-and-application-of-magnet/
To plot the field lines around a magnet the procedure below is used. A plotting compass is used.
Using Plotting Compass
Procedure:
Step 1: Trace out the magnet at the center of the paper;
Step 2: Start by positioning the compass near one pole of the magnet.
Step 3: Mark out two dots, A and B that are aligned with the direction of compass needle.
Step 4: Move the compass so that the end of the needle is now directly over B and mark out third dot C.
Step 5: Repeat the process until the compass comes back to another pole of magnet.
Step 6: Join all the dots and this will give the pattern of magnetic field line.
Step 7: Repeat the whole process by starting at different points of magnet, a magnetic field pattern will be
obtained.
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The complete diagram show looks like the one below. The arrows show the direction of the
field lines
QUESTIONS
1. Describe one method of detecting magnetic field around a magnet
Answer
Use a plotting compass. The compass needle should deflect such that its needle will point in
the direction of the magnet’s South Pole.
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2. Describe how iron fillings can be used to show the filed lines of a bar magnet
Answer
Place a hard thin piece of plastic on the magnet, Sprinkle iron filings around it; then tap the
plastic gently and the iron filings will arrange themselves in a pattern that is similar to the
magnetic field pattern.
Self-Assessment question
1. Describe how a plotting compass can be used to show the filed lines of a bar magnet.
SUMMARY
Magnetic field is invisible so to detect it, a compass is used. The compass needle will move
according to the pole it is brought close to. The compass can also be used to identify the pole
of the magnet. To obtain the pattern of the magnetic field the iron fillings are used.
REFERENCES
http://www.excelatphysics.com/magnetic-field.html
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LESSON 31: MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND THEIR USES
Learning objectives
distinguish between the magnetic properties of iron and steel.
distinguish between the design and use of permanent magnets and electromagnets.
give examples of the use of magnetic materials.
Social context
When a screw driver is rubbed on a permanent magnet, it can pick pieces of metals. What
makes the screw driver to remain a magnet after rubbing on a permanent magnet?
In our first lesson we looked at magnetic and non-magnetic materials. Under the magnetic
material we will concentrate on iron and steel. We say iron is magnetically soft because it is
easy to magnetize and demagnetize. Steel on the other hand is a magnetically hard material;
that is it is difficult to magnetize and demagnetize steel. This means steel normally retains the
magnetism after magnetization but iron loses it. So to make permanent magnets steel is
mostly used. On the other hand since iron is very easy to magnetize and loses the magnetism
easily it is used for making temporary magnets which are well known as electromagnets.
From this explanation we can conclude that screw drivers are made from steel as they
retained the magnetism after being rubbed on a permanent magnet.
The examples below shows some of the uses of magnets
1. The loudspeaker
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Source: https://www.buntingeurope.com/industries/speaker-systems/
2. Electromagnets
Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiv
_NKPqfbiAhWCzYUKHUHZCsAQjRx6BAgBEAU&url=%2Furl%3Fsa%3Di%26source%
3Dimages%26cd%3D%26ved%3D%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.howmagnets
work.com%252Fuses.html%26psig%3DAOvVaw39lwZhyV1tt2bDFo_ZtzSb%26ust%3D15
61059783936836&psig=AOvVaw39lwZhyV1tt2bDFo_ZtzSb&ust=1561059783936836
3. Credit and debit cards
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Source: https://www.slideshare.net/pm18aug/uses-of-magnets
297
298
299
QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between magnetic properties of steel and iron?
Answer
Iron is magnetically soft and steel is magnetically hard
2. Explain why permanent magnets are made from steel
Answer
Steel retains magnetism after magnetization
SUMMARY
300
Iron is magnetically soft and steel is magnetically hard
A magnet is designed in a way to match its use
Some of the uses of permanent magnets are; in credit and debit cards to store information,
loud speakers, magnetic compasses, bicycle dynamos etc.
Temporary (electromagnets) are used in; electric bells, for picking scrap metals etc.
REFERENCES
http://www.excelatphysics.com/magnetic-field.html
https://www.slideshare.net/pm18aug/uses-of-magnets
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LESSON32: STATIC ELECTRICITY - CHARGING BY RUBBING
Learning Objectives:
state the two types of charges, namely positive and negative.
state that charge is measured in coulombs.
demonstrate that unlike charges attract and that like charges repel.
describe the phenomenon of electrostatic charging.
perform simple experiments to show electrostatic charging.
Social construct /everyday life experiences
Electricity was discovered a long time ago when the effect of rubbing materials together were
noticed. You may have seen the effects of these effects for yourself. If you take off a jersey in
a darkroom you may hear the jersey crackle and you may also see sparks. Another example is
that of combing your hair which results in the hair standing upright. How do you explain all
this? Well you will have to rely on the atomic theory to understand that.
Key issues
1 What is a charged material?
2 How can you charge materials (insulators) by rubbing (friction)?
Integration of concept
Let us use the atomic theory to explain this. Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
Objects become charged because the atoms of all substances contain both positive and
negative charges. The positive charges (+) called protons are in the central core or nucleus
of the atom. The negative charges (-) called electrons are spread in orbits around the outer
part of the atom. In a neutral atom (uncharged) the number of protons is equal to the number
of electrons.
Atomic structure
302
Source: http://courses.lumenlearning.com
Let us now use the atomic theory to explain why the hair stands up during combing. Suppose
that you are combing your hair with a polythene (black plastic) comb. During the combing
process, the hair and comb are rubbing against each other. The atoms of the hair are brought
closer to the atoms of the comb. The electron clouds of the two types of atoms are pressed
together and are brought closer to the nuclei of the other atoms. The protons in the atoms of
one material begin to interact with the electrons present on the other material. The force of
friction between the two objects cause electrons to be ripped off from one object and
transferred to the other. One object (comb) will gain extra electrons and become negatively
charged. The other one (hair) will become positively charged since it would have lost some
electrons and remained with excess (more) positive charges. Notice that only the negative
electrons can move while the positive protons remain fixed.
source: http://courses.lumenlearning.com
The presence of different atoms in objects provides different objects with different electrical
properties. One such property is known as electron affinity. Simply put, the property of
electron affinity refers to the relative amount of love that a material has for electrons. If atoms
of a material have a high electron affinity, then that material will have a relatively high love
for electrons. You might even be able to hear the atoms saying, "I like your electrons." And
of course, the atoms of one material - in this case, the atoms of the comb - are more serious
about their claim for electrons. As such, the atoms of comb begin to take electrons from the
atoms of hair. When the rubbing has ceased, the two objects have become charged.
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This property of electron affinity, charging by friction or rubbing can also be used to
illustrate repulsion and attraction between similarly and oppositely charged materials
respectively as shown below. Prior to the charging, both objects are electrically neutral.
Rubbing materials does NOT create electric charges. It just transfers electrons from one
material to the other.
Charging polythene and cellulose acetate rods
Activity:
Repulsion and attraction and negative charges
Rub a piece of polythene strip (or black comb) with a cloth
Hang it up as shown in the diagram
Rub another polythene strip and bring it near the first one.
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Now bring a piece of rubbed polythene close to the hanging cellulose acetate strip (or clear
plastic pen).
Observation: attraction occurs
Insulators
The word ‘static' means ‘standing still’. Static electricity on balloons, plastic combs
(polythene or cellulose), nylon and woolen clothes is electricity that is not moving. These
materials do not carry electricity and are called Insulators: materials that do NOT allow
electrons to flow through them easily. Insulators can be easily charged by friction as the extra
electrons gained cannot easily escape.
The SI unit of electric charge, Q is the coulomb (C). 1 coulomb is the charge that passes any
point in a circuit when there is a current of 1 ampere in the circuit for one second.
From the definition we see that
Charge = current x time
Q = It
A charge of one coulomb is the charge on 6 x 1018 electrons.
1 C = 6 x 1018 electrons
It follows that one electron has a charge of 1.6 x 10 -19 C.
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LESSON 33: ELECTROSTATICS: CHARGING BY INDUCTION
Objectives:
- give an account of charging by induction e.g. touching and separation of charges.
- use the electron model to distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators and give
examples.
Social construct
In one of my social studies lessons while I was still a student my teacher was explaining how
the Basarwa were creative in using friction to make fire by rubbing together two sticks. A
student in the class by the name Mokotedi raised up his hand and said, ‘’they could also use
friction to pick up litter.’’ The whole class broke into a laughter. As the teacher got interested
in what he meant, he quickly took a piece of paper and cut it into tiny pieces. He then pulled
out a pen from his pocket, rubbed it on his jersey and brought it near the pieces of paper.
Wow! As if the pen was a magnet all the pieces of paper were attracted to the pen. The
teacher congratulated Mokotedi saying this was scientific magic similar to the action of a
magnet.
Key issues
Charging a material (conductor) by induction.
Intergration of concepts
A charge can be build up on an uncharged object (like pieces of paper) by holding a charged
object (pen or comb) close to it but not touching as demonstrated by Mokotedi. The positive
charges on the pen repels the positive charges on the neutral paper to the far end (bottom)
and attracts the negative charges closer to it (top) since like charges repel and unlike charges
attract. The negative charges on the top surface of the paper are nearer the pen this makes the
upwards force (attraction) stronger than the downwards force (repulsion) and the paper is
picked. This is what Mokotedi meant by ‘’they could also use friction to pick up litter.’’.
The charges that would appear on an uncharged object (paper) due to a charged object nearby
are called induced charges. So, the pieces of paper have been charged by induction.
Using charged pen to charge pieces of paper by induction
- - - - - - -
CHARGED PEN
attraction
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++ + +
––––
++ + +
UNCHARGED
PAPER
Source: http://www.miniphysics.com
The same scenario can be illustrated as shown below using a plastic comb in place of a pen.
Conductors CANNOT be easily charged by friction as the extra electrons gained can easily
escape. In metallic conductors one or two electrons get separated from the parent atom and
are able to move in the body of the metal. These are called free electrons. It is these free
307
electrons that carry charge when electricity flows. So, conductors cannot be charged by
rubbing (friction) because the charge will flow away with free electrons.
So far you have been charging insulators by rubbing but how do you charge conductors?
Conductors can be charged in two ways: by induction followed by separation of conductors

or by induction followed by earthing. This can be done as shown below.
Separation of conductors
Earthing
Charges separated by bringing a charged rod close to the sphere.
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While the rod is still kept at its position, the sphere is earthed by touching with hand -
electrons flow out to earth.
Charges are evenly distributed around the sphere when the rod and the earth (hand) are
removed.
309
LESSON 34: ELECTRIC FIELD LINES AND LIGHTNING
Objectives
describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences an electric force.
state the direction of lines of force and describe simple field patterns.
understand the concept of discharging and relate it to occurrence of lightning.
describe the design and use of a lightning conductor.
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Sample questions
Summary
Task Questions
References
Social construct
310
source: scanned by camScanner
It is the end of a school day. You are going home with your friends. Suddenly a mass of pitch
black clouds begin to gather. A storm is building up rapidly. Big drops start to fall
accompanied by hailstones and you start to run. Suddenly there is a downpour which comes
with flashes of light which fork across the sky and deafening crackles of thunder. You look
for shelter in a neighboring household. In the seconds which follow the house in which you
sought shelter is engulfed by a large bright flash which is followed by a loud clap of thunder
that shakes the house. You hear screams outside only to discover that a tall tree has been
struck by lightning.
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Key issues
Lightning phenomenon
Source of Flashes of light and sparks
Occurence of a Lightning strike
Integration of concept
The above scenario basically describes an experience with lightning during a thunder storm.
We will apply the knowledge of charging by friction and induction acquired in the prior
stages of our topic to explain lightning phenomenon.
Ice crystals are carried up and down by convection currents and they become charged by
friction. Positive charges remain on the upper layers of the clouds whereas negative charges
flow to the bottom cloud layers. If the charge becomes large enough it can jump between
clouds or between the cloud and the ground in a massive bolt of electricity called lightning.
We therefore observe flashes of light (sparks). There is so much electrical energy produced
that great heat is released. This heats up the air which suddenly expands and explodes. We
hear that as crackles of thunder. A spark jumping between bottom of the cloud and induced
charge on the building or tree becomes a lightning strike.
A flash of lightning releases about 1000 000 000J of energy. If the bottom of the cloud which
carries a negative charges passes over a building or nearer the ground positive charges are
induced on the roof or ground. So, there is induction of positive charges. The force of
attraction between these opposite charges may be strong enough to cause a spark to jump. In
other words a lightning strike has occurred. So, do you see how the tree got struck by
lightning?
So, let s check our understanding. Charges are produced by friction in the clouds. When
charge builds up and become large it can jump appearing as a spark.
When a thundercloud passes over a tall building or tree it can discharge (lose excess charge)
itself with devastating effects. A lightning strike can cause damage to objects and produce
fires. Humans and animals may be killed. Tall buildings and trees are targets of lightning
strikes. This means that they are most likely to be struck because of their heights.
Buildings can be protected by a lightning conductor consisting of thick metal strip on the
outside of the building. One end of the strip is fixed to a metal plate buried in the ground (at
least 1m deep), the other end is attached to a sharp spike or spikes which point upwards
above the highest part of the building. You may never have seen one but you can design it
and use it at home.
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How a lightning conductor works
source: http://www.elliottelectric.com
313
At this point the knowledge you have gained should put you in a better position to understand
the operation of a lightning conductor.
source: http:// www.eliottelectric.com
The lightning conductor reduces the chances of a lightning strike in two ways as illustrated in
the diagrams above:
(i)
The concentration of charge on a conductor is greatest where the surface is most sharply
curved (at the spikes) such that the electric forces on nearby air molecules are strong enough
to strip electrons from them. The air has been split into positive and negative charges called
ions. This splitting of air molecules into ions by the aid of the sharp points is called
ionization. With a lightning conductor, the sharp spikes at the top reduce the chance of a
lightning strike. By effect of action at points, the flow of ions from the spikes lowers the
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induced charges on the roof and some of the charges flow even up to the clouds and cancel
out some of the negative charge on the clouds, making it less likely that the lightning will
strike.
(ii)
If lightning does strike, the lightning conductor provides a route for electrons to pass into the
ground without damaging the building. This provision of a conducting path into the ground is
called earthing. Earthing is a process of sharing charges with the Earth.
Electric field lines of two charge
Unlike charges like charges
Electric field lines of two charged plates
Summary
Charging by friction occurs when two neutral objects made of different materials rub against
or touch each other and electrons are transferred between them.
• When objects are charged by friction, one material is more likely to accept electrons, while
the other is more likely to give up electrons. This is because some kinds of atoms are more
strongly attracted to electrons than others.
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• The electrostatic series is a list that ranks the tendency of different materials to gain
electrons. It can be used to predict the charge that will be gained by two objects (made from
different materials) when they come in contact.
• Charging by conduction occurs when two objects with different amounts of electric charge
come in contact and electrons are transferred from one object to the other.
• A neutral object is charged by conduction when a charged object touches it. The neutral
object becomes charged with the same charge as the object that touched it.
• When two charged objects with different amounts of electric charge come in contact,
electrons are transferred between them.
• When we ground an object, we transfer electrons between the object and a large neutral
object such as Earth (the ground).
• Charging objects by friction or by conduction has practical applications.
Let us test our knowledge and skills.
Questions
A bulb is switched on for15minutes. The current in the bub is 3.0 A.
Calculate the charge passing through the bulb. (2)
The base of a storm cloud is negatively charged. Fig. 6.1 shows the cloud above flat ground
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(a) The cloud causes the ground beneath it to become positively charged.
Explain, in terms of the particles involved, how the ground becomes positively charged.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................[2]
(b) In the space between the negative charge on the cloud and the positive charge on the
ground,
there is an electric field.
State what is meant by an electric field.
...................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................[1]
(c) A lightning strike takes place. In 0.0015 s, a charge of 180 C passes between the cloud
and
the ground.
Calculate the average current in the lightning strike.
Current = ...........................................................[2]
317
3
Why should lightning conductors be
Fixed to the ground
Made of metal
Pointed
At the highest point on a building? (4)
A positively charged plastic ball is suspended on an insulating nylon thread, as shown in Fig.
10.1.
A negatively charged plastic rod is brought towards the positively charged ball.
(a) (i) Describe how the rod might have been given its charge.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) Describe what is seen happening to the ball as the rod is brought near to it.
...........................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................[2]
(iii) State the reason for what you have described in (a)(ii).
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...........................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................[1]
(b) The negatively charged rod is removed.
An identical plastic ball is suspended on another nylon thread of equal length, so that the
balls are a short distance from each other. The second ball is also given a positive charge.
In the space below, sketch how the two balls and their threads will hang. [2]
5.
An experiment to show charging by induction uses a metal sphere mounted on an insulated

support. The sphere is initially uncharged and is shown in Fig. 6.1.
(a) A negatively charged rod is brought near the sphere, as shown in Fig. 6.2
(i) State and explain the movement of electrons in the sphere that occurs as the rod is brought
near. [2]
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(ii) On Fig. 6.2, draw the charges on the metal sphere. [2]
(b) The metal sphere is now touched at point A by a wire connected to earth, as shown in
Fig. 6.3.
On Fig. 6.3, draw the charges on the metal sphere. [1]
(c) The wire connected to earth is removed. Then the negatively charged rod is also removed,
as shown in Fig. 6.4.
On Fig. 6.4, draw the charges on the metal sphere. [2]
(d) The support is made from an insulator.
State one material that may be used to make the support. [1]
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Solutions
Q = It.
To use the formula the time should be measured in seconds.
15 minutes = 15 x 60 s = 900 s
Q = 3.0 A x 900 s
= 2700 C
(a) electrons repelled by cloud (leaving ground positive) not positive
charge / protons move
like charges repel or electrons negative
(b) (region) where (electric) charge experiences a force
(c) (I = ) Q / t or 180 / 0.0015
1.2 × 105 A
(i) to share charges with the ground
(ii) to provide a conducting path for the flow of charge
(iii) to concentrate charges at the sharp points so as to help split air molecules into ions.
(iv) to discharge the cloud before the lightning can be in contact with the building.
(a) (i) friction / rubbing on / with (dry) cloth / insulator
(ii) moves to the right / to(wards) / by the rod / closer to (the rod)
ignore sticks to, accept attracts / attracted for both marks
(iii) unlike / opposite charges attract OR positive attracts negative
(b) threads further apart at bottom than top

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straight threads OR equal angles to vertical
(a) (i) electrons/they move (on sphere) away from rod/to right
negative or electrons repelled by (negative on) rod or like charges repel
(actual movement of positive charge max 1 positive electrons max 1)
(ii) positive nearest rod and negative on side furthest from rod
(allow charges just outside sphere no need for same no. of +ve and –ve
charges)
(b) only positive on side near rod
no e.c.f. a (ii)
(c) >1 positive charge distributed over sphere
e.c.f. B1
(d) plastic/perspex/polythene/rubber/ebonite/glass/wood etc.
Reference
1.
http://www.elliottelectric.com
2.
http://courses.lumenlearning.com
3.
Beginning Science Physics, J.J. Wellington, Oxford
4.
Physics for Higher Tier, S. Pople, 3rd Edition, Oxford.
5.
http://www.miniphysics.com
322
LESSON 35: ELECTRIC CURRENT - MOVING ELECTRONS
Objectives
define electric current as the rate of flow of charge and that it is measured in Amperes ( A ).
use the equation I= Q/t.
use and describe the use of an ammeter with different ranges including a milliampere range
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Sample questions
Summary
Task Questions
References
Social construct (EMF of a battery and current)
In your village or town water reticulation system drinking water is supplied by the local
suppliers by first pumping it up into a reservoir mounted on high metal stands or high on a
hilltop. Why is it necessary for the tank to be mounted on high metal frames or hill top?
Key issues
Height of water tank representing high pressure and high voltage
Flow rate of water to represent electric current
Relationship between charge, current and time
323
We can use the diagrams of fig 1 below to explain the scenario above. The water tank in the
water circuit which provides the water pressure that pushes the water through the pipes
represents the cell in an electrical circuit that provides an ‘electrical pressure’ which pushes
the electrons through the wires and bulb. This water pressure represents the voltage in the
electric circuit. The water pipes represent the wires in the electric circuit and the flow rate of
water represents the electric current in the electric circuit.
When the height of the tank is increased the pressure of water is increased and water flows at
a faster rate. When the height of the tank is decreased the pressure of water is decreased and
water flows at a slow rate.
Fig 1 (a) shows a tank of water with an outlet pipe at the bottom; water flows out at a slow
rate. When the depth of water in the tank is increased as in fig 1 (b), the pressure of water at
the bottom of the tank is increased and water flows at a faster rate.
In fig 1 (c) one cell pushes the electrons through the bulb at a slow rate and the bulb is dull
indicating little current in the circuit. Electrical energy is being converted to heat and light
energy at a slow rate. In fig 1 (d) two cells push the electrons round the circuit more quickly
and the bulb is brighter indicating more current in the circuit. Electrical energy is being
transferred to heat and light energy more quickly.
Increasing the voltage in the circuit increases the current.
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge in a circuit. An ammeter is an instrument used to
measure electric current. The SI unit of electric current is the Ampere, A.
The amount of charge passing a point depends on the current which flows and the time for
which it flows. One coulomb is the amount of charge carried by a current of one ampere
which flows for one second. The more charge flowing the bigger the current.
Current, charge and time are mathematically related as follows:
Current (amps) = charge (coulombs)/time (seconds)
I = Q / t or Q = It
Worked example
A current of 1A flows through a lamp for one minute. How much charge passes through the
lamp?
Q=?
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I= 1A, t = 1 minute = 60 s
Q = It = 1 A x 60 s = 60 C
Current as rate of flow of charge
Fig 1: scanned by scanCam
Questions
1.
Water circuits and electric circuits have some similarities. Some examples are given in the
table below.
325
Complete the table by writing down other circuit characteristics not given.
Object/property mappings Electric circuit characteristic
pump battery
Valve
Pipe wire
Narrow pipe
Pressure of water voltage
Flow rate of water Current flow
Pressure difference gauge
Charge carriers
Flow meter
Height/Pot. Energy
2.
Calculate the current that flows through a device if a charge of 12.0 C is dissipated every 10
s.
3.
How long does a charge of 90 C drive a current of 15 A around a complete circuit?
Answers
1.
Water circuit characteristic Electric circuit characteristic
valve switch
Narrow pipe resistance
Pressure difference gauge voltmeter
326
water Charge carriers
Height/Pot. Energy voltage
Flow meter ammeter
2.
I=? Q = 12.0 C t = 10 s
𝐐
I= 𝐭
𝟏𝟐.𝟎 𝐂
I=
𝟏𝟎 𝐬
I = 1.2 A
3.
I = 15 A Q = 90 C t=?
𝐐
I= 𝐭
𝐐
t= 𝐈
𝟗𝟎𝐂
t= t = 6.0 s
𝟏𝟓𝐀
327
Lesson 36 Potential Difference (P.D)
Introduction
Objectives
- state that the e.m.f of a source of electrical energy is measured in volts.
- give a definition of the volt [Energy/Charge (J/C)].
- give an explanation of potential difference.
- state that the potential difference across a circuit component is measured in volts.
- use and describe the use of a voltmeter with different ranges.
Lesson Content
1.3 Symbols
1.4 Units
Sample questions
Summary
Task Questions
References
Social construct (potential difference, p.d)
In one of the school holidays you visit your uncle at a cattle post. The first task for the day is
providing drinking water to cattle from a storage tank. You try to push the tank for water to
flow out of the spout into the trough but the herd boy stops your attempt. You watch with
keen interest as the herd boy snatches a hose pipe, lowers one end into the tank and sucks at
the other end. Wow! The water starts to flow freely into the trough.
328
The device used by the herd boy is called a siphon. The herd boy has created a pressure
difference between the two ends of the hosepipe.
The pressure difference which was created at the ends of the siphon which caused water to
flow out is similar to the electric pressure difference created at the ends of the battery. We
call this electric pressure difference potential difference, p.d (also referred to as voltage). A
battery moves charges from a place of high electric potential energy (just like high pressure at
one end of the siphon) to a place of low electric potential energy creating a potential
difference.
As you suck at one end of the hosepipe (just like sipping a drink from a can using a straw) the
liquid is pushed into your mouth by atmospheric pressure. You take air out of the hosepipe by
expanding your lungs creating low pressure inside your lungs and the hosepipe. Outside on
the surface of the liquid the atmospheric pressure becomes greater than the atmospheric
pressure inside the hosepipe. So, at one end of the hosepipe there is high pressure while at the
other end there is low pressure. A pressure difference first needs to be created before a flow
can start.
The electromotive force pushes electrons around a circuit. The battery is a kind of electron
pump which exerts electric pressure on the electrons. Batteries, generators and solar cells are
able to maintain one terminal positive and the other negative. Potential difference, p,d is also
called voltage.
Relating voltage, energy, work and charge
Source:physics For Higher Tiers, S.Pople
329
As illustrated in the diagram above, energy is needed to drive charge around a circuit from a
battery.
There is a potential difference of 1 v across a battery if each coulomb of charge is given one
joule of electric potential energy. This is a measure of how much energy is used by a charge
of 1 coulomb to move from one place to another in a field or how much work is needed to
move 1 coulomb of charge from one potential to another ( V = E / Q or V = W / Q)
The p.d across a battery can be measured using a voltmeter and is given in units of
Joule/Coulomb or volts. A voltmeter reading taken between two points of a circuit indicates
the potential energy lost by charge passing through circuit components (such as a bulb)
during energy transfer. This is called a voltage drop.
Voltage can be expressed as follows:
Voltage (p.d) = Energy transferred per Coulomb of charge
V = E / Q or W / Q
W=V×Q
Q = E/V
where,
V = Voltage measured in Volts (V)

W = Work done measured in Joules (J)
E = energy
transferred in joules (J)
Q = Charge
measured in Coulombs (C)
1Volt = 1 Joule of energy transferred by 1 Coulomb of charge, 1 V = 1 J / C
Worked example
A 6V battery passes a current of 1 A through a lamp for 1 minute. How much energy is
transferred from the battery to the lamp?
E = ? Q = It = 1x60 s = 60 C
E = QV = 60x6=360J
330
Questions
1.
Explain clearly the difference between electromotive force of a cell and potential difference
across a lamp.
2.
The p.d across the lamp is 12 V. How many joules of electrical energy are changed into light
and heat when:
i). A charge of 1 C passes through it
ii). A charge of 5 C passes through it
iii). A current of 2 A flows through it for 10 s?
3.
The diagram below shows a voltmeter that has been incorrectly drawn in the circuit to
measure voltage drop at the lamp.
Redraw the circuit diagram showing the correction
Answers
1.
Potential difference is when a battery maintains one terminal at a high electric potential
energy and the other one at a low electric potential energy creating an electric potential
energy difference on either sides of the lamp. The electromotive force is the force from the
source of charge which exerts electric pressure on the electrons.
2.
(i)
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E = ? Q = 1C V = 12V
E = VQ = 12 x 1 = 12J
(ii)
E = ? Q = 5C V = 12V
E = VQ = 12 x 5= 60J
(iii)
E=? I=2A t = 10 s v = 12V
Q = It = 2 x 10 = 20 C
E = VQ = 12 x 20 = 240 J
3.
The voltmeter should be drawn across the lamp.
332
LESSON 37: CURRENT IN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Objective
- perform experiments to show that
(i) current is the same at every point in a series circuit.
(ii) the current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate branches of a parallel
circuit.
Social construct
Analogy 1:
Consider the water flow and charge flow in the two illustrations below.
Fig 1: scanned by sccnCamera from Physics Matters, Nick England
Analogy 2:
In the illustration below consider water flowing through pipes to make a water circuit, this is
similar to the water circuit in a water distribution system of a house.
The water circuit in a water distribution system of a house.
333
source: http://www.phet.colorado.ed.en/simulations
Analogy 1:
Fig 1 (a) shows water flowing from a tank through an outlet pipe. The water flowing through
the pipe has the same depth (water pressure) in the tank. Therefore water runs out of the pipe
at the same rate everywhere in the pipe. In Fig 1 (b) the electric circuit shares a resemblance
with the water circuit, the lamps has the same brightness. Therefore, the flow of charge
(electric current) is the same everywhere in the circuit.
The current (flow rate) is the same at all points in a series circuit.
A1 = A2 = A3 and therefore I1 = I2 = I3
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Analogy 2:
Water circuit in a water distribution system of a house. The water being pumped round a
network of pipes is like electrical current flowing around a circuit. The water flowing around
the circuit is analogous to current in an electrical circuit. It divides at a junction and then
comes back together neatly illustrating how electrical current behaves at a junction of a
parallel circuit. The water current is measured in liters per second just as the electrical current
is measured in Coulombs per second or amperes.
Current divides among the several pathways in a parallel circuit. The sum of the
current in the branches is equal to the current in the main branch.
AT = A1 + A2
IT = I1 + I2 + …
335
Lesson 38 Voltage in series and parallel circuit
Objectives
- perform experiments to show that
(iii) the sum of the p.d's in a series circuit is equal to the terminal p.d. across the source.
(iv) the p.d across components in parallel is the same as the terminal p.d.
Social construct (voltage in series and parallel circuit)
Analogy: Water going up and down hill.
In this analogy (water circuit and electric circuit representation) water is pumped up to a
height and then flows back down hill, this is like the water supply for your village local water
supply that is first pumped into a reservoir.
source:http://.www.phet.colorado.edu.en
336
Water is pumped up to a height gaining potential energy which is analogous to charge

carriers going through a cell gaining electrical energy. The height represents the ‘voltage’.
Water flowing downhill gains kinetic energy but loses height which is analogous to electrical
energy being transferred to some other form. Water flowing along a level channel loses no
height just as voltage through a wire does result in no drop in potential difference.
This analogy shows how voltages relate to each other. Whichever route the water takes, the
gain in height is equal to the loss of height around a complete circuit loop.
In the diagram we see:

Change of height, Δh1 = e.m.f = Potential Difference.
Change of height, Δh1 = Δh3 + Δh4 (Voltages in series add up)
Δh1 = Δh2 = Δh3 + Δh4 (voltage in parallel equal to e.m.f)
1. Change of height, Δh1 = Δh3 + Δh4 (Voltages in series add up)
source: http://.www.phet.colorado.edu.en
In this case the total e.m.f. is the individual e.m.f. of each cell in the battery which all add up
to 7 volts.
337
In a series circuit there is a potential drop across the circuit components. Thus the sum of the
voltages across the circuit components should give the e.m.f.
VT = V1 + V2 + …
2. Δh1 = Δh2 = Δh3 + Δh4 (voltage in parallel equal to e.m.f)
Voltage in parallel circuits
The voltages across parallel circuit components are equal.
VT = V1 = V2
338
In path 1 in the diagram below, the e.m.f of 3 V is matched by a P.d. of 3 V across the first
bulb.
In path 2, the same situation occurs and the 3 V E.M.F of the battery is equal to the 3 V P.d.
across the second (lower) bulb.
Therefore, the P.d. across each bulb MUST be the same.
source: http:www.phet.colorado.edu.en
Lesson 39 Resistance
Objectives
- give an explanation of resistance.
- state that resistance is measured in ohms.
339
- calculate the total resistance of two resistors in series.
- calculate the total resistance of two resistors in parallel
- describe qualitatively the relationship between resistance, length and cross-sectional area.
Social construct (Resistance)
Imagine you are watering at the garden with a hosepipe and the water pressure is very high
such that it keeps on eroding the soil. How would you control the flow of water to stop the
digging into the soil? Its simple, is that not so? Just squeeze the hosepipe or fold it gentle this
will reduce the flow such that the water pressure is reduced.
By squeezing you are creating a resistance to water flow. Components of an electric circuit
can do likewise. They have the ability to oppose current flow which we call resistance.The
resistance to water flow represented by severe constriction in a hosepipe is similar to
resistance to electriic current represented by a common resistor, R.
The hose pipe offers very ittle resistance to water flow, resulting in high pressure digging the
soil. A copper wire offers very little resistance to charge flow resulting in large current
reaching the appliance.
A resistor is a material with a certain amount of resistance. The SI unit of resistance is the
ohm, Ω.
source: http://www.sparkfun.com
340
Resistance in a series circuit.
When resistors are in series their total resistance add up. The total resistance, RT for resistors
R1, R2, R3, etc which are in series is given by
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
The effect is the same as joining two short lengths of nichrome wire to make a longer one.
Worked example
Find the total resistance of the circuit shown below if R1 = 4Ω, R2 = 3Ω and R3 = 2Ω.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 4Ω + 3Ω + 2Ω
=9Ω
Resistance in parallel circuits
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The total resistance, RT for resistors R1, R2, R3, etc which are parallel is given by
1 1 1 1
    ...
RT R1 R2 R3
When only two resistors are involved: RT = R1R2/R1+R2
Resistors in parallel give a lower resistance than a single resistor in the parallel connection.
The effect is the same as putting two pieces of nichrome wire side by side to become a larger
piece of wire.
Worked example
Find the total resistance of the circuit shown below if R1 = 4Ω and R2 = 2Ω.
𝟒Ω+𝟐Ω
R-1 = ( 𝟐Ω𝐱𝟒Ω )
(R-1)-1 = (6/8)-1Ω
OR
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𝟒Ω𝒙𝟐Ω
R =(𝟐Ω+𝟒Ω)
R = 1.33Ω
Factors affecting resistance
The resistance of a material depends on
Length: a long wires have more resistance than short ones
Thickness (or cross sectional area): thin wires have more resistance than thick wires
Type of material e.g nichrome has more resistance than copper wire of the same size
Temperature: resistance changes with temperature
Lesson 40 Ohm’s Law
Objectives
- state that resistance = p.d./current and use the equation R = V/I.
- perform and describe an experiment to determine resistance using a voltmeter and an

ammeter and make the necessary calculation.
- sketch and interpret the V/I characteristic graphs for metallic (ohmic) conductors.
- appreciate the limitations of Ohm's law.
Social construct
At the school in a physics lesson on electricity you should have come across a voltmeter for
measuring voltage in a circuit and an ammeter for measuring electric current in a circuit.
Which instrument is used for measuring resistance of a given conductor such as piece of
wire? There is hardly any such instrument but how can you find it?
Key issues
Finding the resistance of an ohmic conductor
Intèrgration of concepts
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The simplest way for you to measure resistance of a resistor that is a conductor (metal) is by
first determining the voltage and current passing through a given conductor using a voltmeter
and ammeter respectively as illustrated on fig below.
The voltmeter measures voltage across the wire. The ammeter measures current flowing
through. The water keeps the wire at a steady temperature. To change the voltage across the
wire, you move the sliding contact on the variable resistor. This gives the wire a different
share of the battery voltage. You increase the voltage in stages, and measure the current each
time. The resistance is found by dividing the values of measured voltage by the
corresponding measured values of current: R = V/I.
source: scanned by camScanner from physics for Higher Tiers, S.Pople
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When values of current are plotted against values of voltage a straight line graph starting
from the origin is obtained (I-V graph). The resistance of the wire can be found by
calculating the inverse of the gradient (or slope) of the graph, BC/AB in the graph. The
gradient has the same value, regardless of which two points are used to calculate it. Other
types of metallic conductors show the same relationship but the gradient of the line will be
different. Such metallic conductors are called ohmic resistors.
Non-metallic (non-ohmic) like diode, thermistor and bulb filament do not produce straight
line graphs but the graphs are curving.
scanned by camScanner from physics for higher Tiers, S.Pople
The relationship between voltage, current and resistance was discovered by a German
Physicist called George Ohm in 1826. The relationship came to be called Ohm’s Law, which
states that:
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The resistance of a metal conductor is always the same whatever current is flowing provided
the temperature does not change. Put in another way,
The current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage provided the
temperature and other conditions remains constant.
Interrelationship between variables in Ohm’s law limitations
Ohm’s law makes intuitive sense if you apply it to the water and pipe analogy. Suppose you
have a water pump that exerts pressure (voltage, V) to push water around a ‘circuit’ (flow
rate for current, I) through a restriction pipe (narrow passage for resistance, R). You can
create a scenario of how the three variables of resistance, voltage and current interrelate.
Interrelationship amongst three variables of Ohm’s Law V, I and R
With reference to diagram on the left and in the middle, if the resistance to water flow
stays the same and the pump pressure increases, the flow rate must also increase. V =
IR
Pressure = increases voltage = increases

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Flow rate = increases current = increases
Pipe narrowness = stays the same resistance = stays the same
With reference to diagram in the middle and on the right If pressure stays the same and
resistance increases (making it more difficult for water to flow), then current flow rate
must decrease. I = V/R
Pressure = same voltage = same
Flow rate = decreases current = decreases
Pipe narrowness = increase resistance = increase
With reference to diagram on the left and on the right, if flow rate were to stay the same
while the resistance to flow decreased, the required pressure from the pump would
necessarily decrease. R = V/I
Pressure = decrease voltage = decrease
Flow rate = same current = same
Resistance = decrease resistance = decrease
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LESSON 41: SOLVING CIRCUIT PROBLEMS
Objectives
- identify circuit components and their symbols.
- perform experiments using simple electric circuits.
- draw and interpret circuit diagrams.
- perform calculations involving components in different circuit combinations.
Social construct
In the previous sections you have learnt about the basic rules about electrical circuit as well
as ohm’s law. At this point you will be required to demonstrate your understanding of the
acquired skills and knowledge to solve circuit problems .
Intergration of concepts
Many of the circuit problems can be solved using a combination of ohm’s law formula and
basic circuit rules about current, voltage and resistance in series and parallel as outlined in the
approach below.
You will have to apply these rules in an appropriate manner:
Voltage in series and parallel respectively: (i) VT = V1 + V2 + …
(ii) VT = V1 = V2 A
Current in series and parallel respectively: (i) IT = I1 = I2
(ii) IT = I1 + I2 + … B
Resistors in series and parallel respectively: (i) RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … for number of R ≥ 3
(ii) RT = R1R2/R1+R2 for number of R = 2 C
Ohm’s law equation: R =V/I D
How to solve problems on circuit diagrams
Find the total resistance in the circuit, RT.
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Use the equation I = V/RT to find the current IT in the circuit.
Apply the appropriate I, V, R equation to the different sections of the circuit.
A word of caution, C : when substituting V, I, R values into the equations be sure that the
values correspond. If for example you are calculating current for resistance R in a series
circuit, V must be the voltage across that resistor alone not any other voltage that happens to
feature on the circuit diagram.
Equally, if R represents the combined resistance of several resistors in parallel, V must be the
voltage across all of them.
Summary
The e.m.f of a source such as a battery, generator or solar cells (also referred to as p.d) is the
potential energy converted into electrical energy when a unit charge passes into it.
The voltage is actually the potential difference between two points and is given in units of
Joule/Coulomb or volts.
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. Conventional current flows from positive to
negative but the flow of electric charges is from negative to positive.
The SI units of current are Amperes (A) or Coulomb per second (C/s). Current is measured
with an ammeter.
In a series circuit the current is the same at all points.
The total resistance, RT for resistors R1, R2, R3, etc which are in series is given by RT = R1 +
R2 + R3 + …
The current is the same at all points in a series circuit.
In a series circuit the sum of the voltages across the circuit components should give the e.m.f.
Current divides among the several pathways in a parallel circuit.
The voltages across parallel circuit components are equal.
The total resistance, RT for resistors R1, R2, R3, etc which are parallel is given by
1 1 1 1
    ...
RT R1 R2 R3
We can now test our knowledge and skills in the questions which follow.
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Questions
What is the reading at meter x? (1)
What is the reading at meters y and z? (1)
3. Study the circuit below and answer questions that follow.
350
Calculate the total resistance of the circuit (2)
Calculate the current from the source (2)
What is the voltage across the 4 Ω resistor (2)
What is the voltage across the 7 Ω resistor (2)
What is the current through the 12 Ω resistor (2)
4.
(a) State ohm’s law and the conditions under which it must apply. (2)
(b) using a clearly labelled diagram describe an experiment you could perform to demonstrate
Ohm’s law using a resistor. Explain clearly how you would use your observation to confirm
the law. (5)
Answers
1.
(a)
Meter X is an ammeter in parallel with another one. So, IT = I1 + I2 + … ………. B
4A = 2A + X
X = 4A – 2A = 2A
2.
For the circuit components in parallel the voltages in the parallel branches is always equal:
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VT = V1 = V2 ………. A.
So, Z = 4V
Voltage at Y is in series with the voltage of the parallel branches:
VT = V1 + V2 + … ………. A.
So,
Y = 12V – 4V = 8V
3.
(a) Resistors in parallel can be replaced by one resistor of their equivalence, Rq.
Rq.= R1R2/R1+R2 = 4x12/4+12 = 48/12 = 4 Ω.
RT = R1R2/R1+R2 for number of R = 2 C
Redraw the circuit showing Rq and R (the 7 Ω resistor) in series.
Finally, the total resistance RT = Rq+ R:
RT = Rq+ R = 4 Ω + 7 Ω = 11 Ω
(b) Use the equation IT = V/RT to find the total current IT in the circuit: …………… 2
IT = V/RT =20/11 = 1.8 A
(c) Apply the appropriate I, V, R equation to the different sections of the circuit: ……… 3,
D, C
Current through 4Ω lamp = 1.8 A
I = 1.8 A, R = 4Ω
V = IR = 1.8 x 4 = 7.2 V
(d) Apply the appropriate I, V, R equation to the different sections of the circuit: ……… 3,
D, C
I = 1.8 A, R = 7Ω
V = IR = 1.8 x 7 = 12.6 V
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(e) Apply the appropriate I, V, R equation to the different sections of the circuit: ……… 3,
D, C
I = V/R =20/12 = 1.7 A
4.
(a)
The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it provided the
temperature and other conditions are kept constant.
(b)
A circuit is set up as shown on the diagram below. The readings of the ammeter and
voltmeter are taken. The rheostat is adjusted over a wide range to allow several sets of data of
voltage and current to be taken. A graph of current, I against voltage, V is then plotted. If a
straight line graph is obtained passing through the origin then the resistor obeys ohm’s law.
Reference
1.
Beginning Science Physics, J.J. Wellington, Oxford
2.
Physics for Higher Tier, S. Pople, 3rd Edition, Oxford.
3.
353
http:www.phet.colorado.edu.en.
4.
http://www.sparkfun.com
354
LESSON 42: USE OF ELECTRICITY
Learning objectives
state the use of electricity in lighting, machines, security.
use the equations P = VI, E = VIt.
calculate the cost of using electrical appliances.
Social context
We are so much used to electricity that life without it is almost impossible in the modern
days. The usefulness of electricity cannot be over emphasised, at home electricity is needed
to light up houses. It is also needed to power our appliances for heating, cooking and
entertainment. In the industry, almost all machines need electricity to function. We light up
our streets for safety and security. Though electricity is so important, it comes with a cost. At
home you frequently have to buy electricity from outlets or through mobile phones. You must
have realised the more you light up the house the more electricity you use. When you cook
using an electric stove you buy more electricity than when you only use electricity for
lighting. Our parents usually get angry with us we leave the water heaters (geyser) on after
bathing because consumption of electricity would be high.
Key issues
Electricity is very useful for our daily lives it is used in lighting, driving machines and for
security. Though we so much depend on it, it has its costs of using it and the cost depends on
the period it is used and the type of appliance operated.
Electrical power can be calculated from the current flowing through the appliance and the
amount of voltage it is connected to. From previous lessons, you were taught that Power is
given by Energy over time (P=E/t). Electrical energy is given by E=VIt.
Substituting the two equations we get P = VI
Where P is the power, V is the voltage and I is current.
Knowing the power of an appliance, we can easily calculate the cost of using electricity.
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Cost of electricity
Electrical usage is measured in kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is the amount of electricity in

kilo watts used for a particular time in hours. kWh is the commercial unit of electrical energy.
1 unit = 1kWh. This is amount of energy supplied in one hour by a power of 1000 watts.
Usually electricity providers will charge a unit of consumption of electricity. For example,
Botswana Power Corporation may charge a cost of 1 unit as 95 thebe.
If you use water heater of 2kW for 2 hours, the cost may be calculated as follows:
Energy consumption = Power x time = 2kW x 2hours =4kWh
Cost= Units x cost per unit = 4kWh x 0.95 Pula = P3.80 (3 Pula 80 thebe)
Task questions
Q1. State two uses of electricity.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q2. What is the power of an iron connected to the mains (230V) if a current of 8 A is passing
through it?
___________________
Q3. A 1200W radio is played for 5 hours. Calculate the cost incurred if a unit cost 80 thebe.
___________________
Key terms
Power-the rate of transfer of electrical energy
Unit-the amount of electrical energy consumed in one hour.
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Questions
Q1. A washing machine is connected to a 240V mains. The current flowing through it is 15A.
Calculate the power of the washing machine.
_________________________
Q2. An electric oven 2kW is plugged on to a socket of output 240V. What is current in the
heating element of the oven?
________________________
Q3. A hair dryer of 800W is operated for 30 minutes. Calculate the amount of electrical
energy consumed during the operation.
________________________
Q4. Calculate the time that an appliance of 500W was operated for if 5kJ of electrical energy
was used.
________________________
Q5. How much is the cost of a unit if the cost of 25 units is P86.60?
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_________________________
Q6. Taking the cost of a unit to be 90 thebe, calculate the total cost for operating the
following appliances:
6 lights of 100W each for 5 hours, an electric stove of 2kW for 1 hour 30 minutes and a
300W fan for 3 hours.
___________________________
Summary
Now let us summarise our lesson.
Electricity is used for lighting, heating, driving machines and for security. Its cost can be
calculated from the number of units consumed x the cost per unit.
Cost = Units x Cost per unit
Power, rate of consumption of electrical energy by an appliance or machine = voltage x

current
P = VI
And the electrical energy used, number of units can be calculated from the rate of
consumption multiplied by the length of time electricity was being consumed.
E = VIt
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Lesson 43: DANGERS OF ELECTRICITY
Learning objectives
state the hazards of
(i) damaged insulation.
(ii) overheating of cables.
(iii) damp conditions.
(iv) overloading of sockets.
explain how these hazards can be prevented.
Social context
If it never happened to you at least you should have heard about it. Electricity is very
dangerous.in my experiences I once touched a faulty stove and felt an electric shock. I also
got shocked from touching a bare electric wire. Usually at home where we connect electric
kettle, stove, heater or iron, you will that the sockets burn out. If you haven’t realised this, it
is time for you to check it out.
Key issues
Electricity is very dangerous and a hazard itself. It can kill, and it can cause fires. The reason
why those electrical wires are insulated and we have tripping switches in the main box.
The following are the hazards of electricity and how they can be prevented.
Damaged insulation
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Source; https://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?1913624-How-to-securely-
splice-a-wire&styleid=40
Electricity can easily flow though our bodies. When this happens, you get an unpleasant
feeling called electric shock. The effect depends on how much electricity is passing through
the body, from sensation, to painful, to serious injury and sometimes death. To guard against
unintentional contact with electricity, electrical cables are insulated. When the insulation is
damaged you need to insulate it with and insulating tape or replace the whole cable.
Overheating of cables
The heating on cables is caused by the resistance as current tries to pass through the
conductor. More current or more resistance will cause heating. Conductors should be
monitored so that they don’t get too hot. Otherwise the insulation will melt and sometimes
cause damage to the appliance or in extreme cases cause fire. This can be avoided by using
bigger cables with less resistance and keeping conducting cables as short as possible.
Damp conditions
Source: http://www.levittowncomfort.com/homeowner-electrical-safety-tips-from-kiss-
electric
Damp conditions poses a threat when dealing with electricity. This is because water is a good
conductor and can lead current astray to unintended places. This may end up causing
electrocution, fire or damage to appliances. To avoid this, keep hand dry when handling
electricity, keep appliances away from water sources and keep them dry during humid
weather by wiping them.
Overloading of sockets
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Source: https://www.avivacanada.com/blog/2014/11-07/fire-alert-overloaded-cordsoutlets-
put-you-risk
More sockets connected to one point can be a serious fire hazard. This is because overloading
sockets increases current load leading to heating effect. Keep one appliance per socket and
avoid using adaptors to avoid overloading of sockets.
Task questions
Q1. List two dangers of electricity.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q2. What is meant by overloading of sockets?
___________________________________________________________________________
Q3. How can long electrical cables be an electrical hazard?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Key terms
Hazard-anything that has the potential to causing injury or damage to the property.
Questions
Q1. Describe how you would minimise the risks associated with electricity at home.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Explain how damaged insulation can be a hazard.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Why do we have to keep electrical appliances away from high humidity places?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q4. Why do we get a shock when touching a faulty electrical appliance?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Summary
Below is a table summarising the electrical hazards and the precautions against the hazards
Hazard Precaution
1 Open wires Insulate with electrical tape or replace
2 Overloading plugs Keep plugs to the minimum in one socket
3 Wet conditions Avoid wet hands when handling electricity
4 Overheating of cables Keep cables short
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Lesson 44 HOME ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Learning objectives
show understanding of the use of fuses and fuse ratings.
explain the need for earthing metal cases and for double insulation of electrical appliances.
give the meaning of the terms: live, neutral and earth.
describe and correctly wire a mains plug.
understand simple lighting (including lamps in parallel) in the house.
give the reason for connecting switches and fuses in live wires.
describe the necessary diagnostic steps to be followed when there is an electrical fault in an
appliance e.g. blown fuse, loose connection, etc.
Social context
We all nowadays get to experience electricity one way or the other. You may be having a
direct experience by living where there is electricity, using at school or seeing it at shops and
service centres. Either we tend to learn something about electricity. Electricity is very
dangerous especially when it is high. You might have heard a story of a fire caused by
electricity or someone electrocuted. There are safety measures that we do all come across as
ways of risks of working with electricity. The wall sockets in our home or at school have 3
pin slot where we connect the plug, the 3 pin plugs/adapters usually have a fuse, not all
appliance have three pins on their plugs-stereo units usually have 2 pins and irons have 3 pin
plugs (all appliances having a metal part exposed have the third pin)
Finally, you must have realised that the lights and sockets switch independently.
Key issues
Electricity is very dangerous hence safety measures have been put in place:
Fuses are used to cut the flow of electricity when there is an electrical fault. Electricity is
supplied to our homes through two cables, live and neutral, the third pin provides a safety
measure to lead all the stray current to the ground to avoid shock.
All lights and sockets are connected in parallel so that they can receive equal amounts of
voltage and keep working even when one is broken.
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Fuses
A fuse is a protection device used to cut electricity in a case of electrical fault. It is made of a
thin conducting wire which melts when too much current flows through it. This helps in
cutting off electricity before it can damage the appliance or cause fires.
Symbol
Fuses have different ratings which their selection depends on the power rating and the voltage
of the protected appliance.
To select the appropriate fuse for an appliance, the equation P=IV is used. Where P is the
power rating of the appliance, I is the normal current flowing through the appliance and V is
the voltage supplied to the appliance.
Suppose we want to determine the fuse rating for an electric iron power rated 2kW. The
voltage supply of the mains is 240V.
P = IV
2kW = I x 240V
I = 2000W/240V
I = 8.33A
The choice of the fuse used should be determined by the normal current, I, calculated above.
The rating should be slightly higher than I. this is important to avoid blowing the fuse while
the appliance is working under normal currents. If a too high rating fuse is used the appliance
will be damaged before the fuse blows out.
In our example the best fuse would be a 10A fuse.
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Electrical House Installations
Electricity is supplied into our homes using two cables, the live cable and the neutral cable.
The third cable is called the earth does not carry electricity but acts as a safety measure.
The live wire is ‘live’ is live with electricity. It carries the current from the power station into
our homes and into the appliances.
The neutral wire completes the path by carrying the current out of the appliance back to the
station. The neutral wire is at potential zero, not ‘live’, because it is grounded at the sub-
station.
The earth wire acts to protect users against electrocution in a case the appliance is faulty. It
connects from the appliance and ends in the ground usually behind the house. This cable is
connected to the metal casing of an appliance, when the live wire accidentally touches the
metal casing it protects people who touch the appliance by providing an alternative path for
stray current to the ground rather than through the body.
Earth symbol.
Appliances which have only two pins have this taken care of by double insulating the
appliance. Double insulation making the casing of the appliance with a plastic to eliminate
the chances of coming in contact with electricity when the live wire accidentally touches the
casing. This is because plastic is a good insulator of electricity.
Double insulation symbol
The three pin plug
As outlined earlier the, there are three cables that we connect our appliances to, the live, the
neutral and the earth. To transfer electricity from the sockets to the appliances we use a three
pin plug. Below is a diagram showing the three pin plug.
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Figure 2 the three pin plug. Source; https://slideplayer.com/slide/6167997/
When wiring the three pin plug, it is very important to wire it correctly by looking at the
colour coding on the cables. The three cables are:
Live: colour coded brown
Neutral: colour coded blue
Earth: colour coded green/yellow
You should also note that the fuse is connected on the live wire.
Wiring a house
Electricity from the power stations comes to our homes through two cables, the live and the
neutral wire. The live wire carries electricity into our homes and the neutral completes the
circuits by carrying it back to the power stations. When electricity is connected to our homes,
it goes through the main box where each circuit is provided with a safety feature by the use of
a trip switch. These switches act as fuse to cut current flow when they detect a fault. Usually
sockets, lights, stove and geyser have their separate trip switches at the main box. The main
switch controls the whole circuit in the house. Unlike fuses, trip switches can be reused after
a fault. From the main box, all the sockets are wire through one loop called the ring main.
The advantages of the ring main circuit are as follows

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it keeps the wires as shortest as possible to avoid over heating of cables
it connects all sockets in parallel
All lights are connected in parallel.
The advantages of a parallel circuit are:
all points have an equal amount of voltage supply (240V)
the voltage through the point does not change as appliances are connected or as you light up
the lights
points can be switched independently
even when one bulb in the circuit is broken other bulbs will remain lit.
Below is a diagram of a house wiring circuit
Figure 2: Basic house wiring circuit. Source;

https://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/topics/electricity/home/house%20wiring.htm
Note how the ring circuit main is wired.
It is also important to note that all the switches and the fuses are connected on the live line.
This is because the live wire is the one that carries live current. If the fuses and the switches
were connected on the neutral wire, the appliances would remain live even after they are
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switched off or the fuse has blown. This is very dangerous because if the appliance is touched
then current will flow through the body to the ground giving a lethal shock.
Diagnosing a faulty appliance
Below are steps to follow when diagnosing a faulty appliance:
Is the appliance. Try to switch the appliance on. If it comes on, then the fault is within the
appliance. If you are not an electrician don’t attempt to open it but rather take it to the
electricians for further diagnosis.
If it doesn’t come on check if there is power. You can do this by looking from the meter box
or switching on the light or checking if other appliances are working.
If there is power check if the connection at the socket is not loose or the cables are intact.
If the connection is not loose check whether the fuses are not blown (both the plug fuse and
the appliance fuse)
If they are fine, connect the appliance to a different socket
If still the appliance cannot function, take it to an electrician.
Task questions
Q1. What is the use of an earth wire?
___________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Name the three pins in a three pin plug
___________________________________________________________________________
Q3. What is the fuse rating appropriate for an appliance of power rating 1800W connected to
the mains of 240V?
_____________________
Key terms
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Fuse rating-the maximum current beyond which a fuse will blow.
Questions
Q1 The diagram below shows a fuse.
Source; https://www.polytechnichub.com/what-is-fuse-and-its-types/
What is a fuse?
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
What is a fuse rating?
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Why is it important to use a fuse rated higher than the calculated current through the
appliance?
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Q2. Which of the three electrical wires
Connects to the metal casing of an appliance?
_______________________
Carries power into the appliance?
_______________________
Connects witches and fuses?
_______________________
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Is not connected to the power station?
_______________________
Has zero potential?
_______________________
Q3. Below is a diagram showing a three pin plug
Source;
https://www.sciwebhop.net/sci_web/physics/gcse/electriccircuits/mains_gcse_questions.htm
Label
A________________________
B________________________
X________________________
Y________________________
Z________________________
What colour is wire
X?_______________________
Y?_______________________
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Z?_______________________
Q4. What is meant by the ring main circuit?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q5. What will happen if:
Switches are connected on the neutral wire?
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Lights are connected in a series circuit?
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Switches are connected on the earth wire?
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Q6. Explain how a hair dryer is still safe without the earth wire.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Summary
Let us summarise what we have learned.
Fuses are used to protect both the user and the appliance in case of an electrical fault. The
fuse rating can be calculated from I = P/V where I is the maximum current, P is the power
rating of the appliance and V is the voltage to which the appliance is connected. The fuse will
blow off when the current accedes its rating cutting the supply of electricity
There are three main cables in our electrical systems, the live-carrying electricity into our
homes from the station, Neutral-completes the circuit from our homes back to the station and
the earth wire that runs from the appliances to the ground. This cable provides the best path
for stray current to pass through avoiding electrocution to the user. Some appliances have no
earth wire and are double insulated by making their casing out of plastic or an insulator.
In a three pin plug
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Pin Colour code Comment
Live Brown Fuse is connected here
Neutral Blue
Earth Yellow/Green Connects to the metal casing of an appliance
When wiring a house all lights are connected in parallel. The sockets are connected through
the ring main and all switches and fuses are connected on the live line.
REFERENCES.
https://www.electricaltechnology.org
https://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/topics/electricity/home/house%20wiring.htm
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LESSON 45: ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS
Learning objectives
perform and describe an experiment which shows that a changing magnetic field can induce
an e.m.f. in a circuit.
state the factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
Social context
Ever wondered where the electricity we use in the homes, industries, hospitals, offices etc.
comes from or how it is made? Also, How does a bicycle light?
Remember the electrical method of magnetising? We use a current moving in a wire to

produce a magnet. Think of it … we can actually reverse the process and use a magnet to
produce current in a wire! This is called electromagnetic induction and the current in the
wire is called induced current.
X. 1 How is Current Induced in a Coil of Wire?
When a magnet is moved* towards (or inside) a coil of wire, the magnetic field cuts* the
wire and a current is induced inside the wire. It is that simple! If the magnet stops moving,
even though it may still be inside the coil of wire, no current is induced in the wire.
Figure 49: Electromagnetic Induction
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/373235887849781899/?lp=true
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NB
If you are to have the current in the wire, it is important that:
moved* - The magnetic field is changing, i.e. it is not stationary.
cuts* - The magnetic field cuts across the wire .i.e. it does not move parallel to the wire.
These two facts are summarised as thus and describe electromagnetic induction:
A changing magnetic field that cuts a conducting wire induces current in the wire.
To learn more you can visit:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yA8gZM3fghc
2. https://youtu.be/Dfr4WBCRDno
3. https://youtu.be/KGTZPTnZBFE
Induced current is used in electricity generation and transformers.
The direction of the current can be reversed by
1. Moving the magnet in the opposite direction.
2. Using a magnet facing the opposite way round (with North becoming South).
These both result in the pointer on the galvanometer moving to the left.
Figure 50: Direction of the Induced Current
Source: https://0625physics.wordpress.com/2017/08/07/first-blog-post/
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Factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
The size of the induced current can be made bigger by:
1. Using a stronger magnet – to ensure that you have more magnetic field.
2. Moving the magnet at a faster speed – to ensure that the field cuts the wire many times.
3. Using more turns of wire on the coil – so that a longer conductor can cut the magnetic
field.
All these result in the pointer on the galvanometer moving further to the right.
Task Questions
The diagram below shows one way to demonstrate an electrical effect.
As the wire is moved downwards between the magnetic poles, the needle of the ammeter
deflects to the right.
(a) State the name of this electrical effect.
................................................................................................................,,,,,,.......................... [1]
(b) State what happens to the needle of the ammeter when the wire is moved upwards
between the magnetic poles.
......................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................ [1]
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(c) State and explain what happens when the wire is held stationary between the magnetic
poles.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................... [2]
When a magnet is pushed into the solenoid in the diagram below the ammeter records a brief
current.
(a) (i) Explain why a current is produced.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) For this situation, state three changes which could be made to increase the magnitude of
the current produced.
1....................................................................................................................................................
2....................................................................................................................................................
3....................................................................................................................................................
[3]
3. A “wind-up” torch does not have batteries. It uses the energy stored in a wound-up spring
to generate the electrical energy that is needed. The diagram below shows a simplified
diagram of the arrangement.
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(a) Explain why an e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................[2]
(b) As the spring unwinds, the force in the spring decreases. Explain why this results in the
torch emitting less light.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................[2]
(c) State how the coil could be changed to produce a larger induced e.m.f.
.....................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................[1]
Summary
A changing magnetic field moving across a conductor induces current/e.m.f in the conductor.
The amount of the induced current can be increased by:
increasing the number of turns in the coil
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using a stronger magnet
increasing the velocity of the magnet/coil
Induced current is used in electricity generation and transformers.
References
https://igcseaid.wordpress.com/notes/coordinated-science-0654/p10-0-sound/
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/373235887849781899/?lp=true
https://0625physics.wordpress.com/2017/08/07/first-blog-post/
378
LESSON 46: THE A.C GENERATOR
Learning objectives
describe a simple form of an a.c. generator (e.g. rotating coil or rotating magnet) and the use
of slip rings.
sketch and interpret a graph of voltage output against time for a simple a.c. generator.
Social Context
1. So from the previous lesson, do you think you can tell us how a bicycle produce light?
What happens at Moropule? How do they generate electricity? Every time I ask this question,
the common answer I get is that:
Coal is burnt to heat the water to produces steam that turns the turbines and electricity is
produced!
While the process is true, my problem with this statement is that I don’t see where the actual
electricity is produced. We end with the turning turbines and then where does the electricity
come from? For me, there is one last important piece missing in this statement.
Ask yourself these questions: Why do we need to turn the turbines? What happens when they
turn? Wait a minute….what did we learn in the last lesson? Yes you guessed it right! That is
why the turbines turn; they are rotating the coil inside the magnetic field which results in the
generation of electricity!
Remember what we learnt about electromagnetic induction? That is the missing part in the
answer I always get as shown above. It should read like: Coal is burnt to heat the water that
produces the steam that turns the turbines. The turbines rotate a coil between the poles of a
magnet so as to produce a changing magnetic field thus electricity is induced in the coil!
This process is shown in figure 49 below.
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Figure 51: A Typical Coal Power Station
The coil and the magnet form what is called a generator; specifically an a.c. generator – a.c.
for alternating current. An alternating current (A.C.) generator is an important application of
electromagnetic induction. It is an electromagnetic device which transforms mechanical
energy into electrical energy. It consists of a rectangular coil of wire which can be rotated
about an axis. The coil is located between the poles of two permanent magnets. Figure 50
below shows a simplified diagram of an a.c. generator.
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Figure 52: A Simplified a.c. Generator
Adapted from: https://slideplayer.com/slide/9649074/
Source:https://connect.collins.co.uk/repo1/Content/Live/Infuze/COL/GCSE_Science_Separat
e_SB_OCR_Gateway/content/Page254.html
As the coil rotates, the magnetic field through the coil changes, which induces an
electromotive force (e.m.f.) between the ends of the coil.
Note: The induced current does not flow UNLESS the generator is electrically connected to
an external circuit with an electrical load, such as a light bulb as shown in the above figure.
So, How Does a Generator work?
Using the figure below, we will investigate how an a.c. generator works. Note that the coil is
being turned in a clockwise manner and the magnetic field is pointing towards the right.
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Figure 53: How a.c. is Produced by the Turning Coil
Source: https://www.miniphysics.com/a-c-generator.html
Steps in the operation:
Coil starts in reference position θ = 0∘: The plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic
field lines. This means that the sides of the coil are moving parallel to the magnetic field lines
and not “cutting” through any magnetic field lines. Hence, no e.m.f. is induced. This is the
position in the first diagram. Note that the needle of the meter is pointing at zero when the
coil is “standing”.
Coil gets turned to reference θ = 90∘: The plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field
lines. The sides of the coil are moving perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines and will be
“cutting” through the magnetic field lines at the greatest rate. Hence, the induced e.m.f. is the
maximum at this position. Using Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of force at A is
upwards (due to clockwise motion), while the magnetic field lines are pointing rightwards.
This will give an induced current pointing into the screen/ away from you. You can do the
same analysis for B, which will be carrying an induced current pointing out of the
screen/towards you at this point.
Coil gets turned to reference position θ = 180∘: Note that now A is at the top while B is now
at the bottom. Once again coil is moving parallel to the field hence the is no induction taking
place
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Coil gets turned to reference position θ = 270∘: Same analysis as in reference
position 90∘ BUT the e.m.f. is in the opposite direction. This is due to the position of A and B
switching places and by the Fleming’s right hand rule, the inwards current will be carried by
B and outwards current will be carried by A. This is exactly what we mean by alternating
current! The current changes direction in the arms of the coil.
When the coil is in the reference position θ = 360∘: we have come full circle - we are exactly
where we started hence the same as the analysis in reference position 0∘0∘. The cycle now
repeats in the same way.
Purpose of slip rings:
The slip rings allow the transfer of alternating e.m.f. induced in the rotating coil to the
external circuit. Each ring is connected to one end of the coil wire and is electrically
connected to the external circuit via the conductive carbon brushes. The rings rotate along
with the coil such that they deliver the changing current direction to the carbon brushes and
eventually to the external circuit.
Applications of generators
By now you should have developed an idea of how a bicycle produces its own light!
Figure 54: A Bicycle Dynamo
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Task Questions
Now try the following questions to see if you have grasped the lesson.
1. The diagram below illustrates a simple alternating current generator.
(a) (i) Name the principle used to explain how a generator works.
…………………………………………………………..……………………….….…… [1]
(ii) Explain how the generator uses this principle to produce the output voltage.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................ [3]
(iii) State three ways of increasing the voltage generated.
1……………………………………………………………………………………………….
2…………………………………………………………………………………………….....
3……………………………………………………………………………………………….
[3]
(iv) Explain why the direction of the voltage reverses each half revolution of the coil.
384
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………...[2]
(b) State the purpose of the slip rings.
......................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................ [1]
(c) Name the parts labelled:
X: ………………………..………………………………..
Y: ………………………………………………………….
[2]
(d) The peak output voltage of the generator is 6.0V and the output has a frequency of 10 Hz.
The diagram below shows the axes of a voltage-time graph for the generator output.
On the diagram above,
(i) mark suitable voltage values on the voltage axis, [1]
(ii) draw a graph of the generator voltage output. [3]
(e) State the energy changes that occur in the generator when it is producing output.
385
................................................................................................................................... [2]
2. The diagram shows the inside of a bicycle dynamo.
(a) (i) State how an alternating current differs from a direct current.
......................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) Explain why the light comes on when the bicycle wheel is turning.
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................[3]
Figs. 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 show views from one end of the coil, when the coil is in different
positions.
386
Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3
(a) Which diagram shows the coil in the position where
(i) the induced e.m.f. in the coil is at its maximum, …………....................................................
(ii) the induced e.m.f. in the coil is zero? ....................................................................................
[2]
(b) On the diagram below, sketch the graph of e.m.f. against time, for two complete rotations
of the coil.
[4]
Summary
In this topic we have established that the principle of electromagnetic induction can be used
to generate electricity for use in the homes, industries and anywhere we need to use
electricity. We now know why the induced current is called alternating current – it changes
direction as the coil rotates within the magnetic field. We also learnt that to increase the
amount of the induced current we can increase the speed of rotation so that the coli cuts the
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field more often, increase the number of turns in the coil so that we have a long conducting
wire cutting the field and lastly using a stronger magnet that will give us a strong magnetic
field.
References
https://www.miniphysics.com/a-c-generator.html
http://spmphysics.onlinetuition.com.my/2008/06/alternating-current-generator.html
https://www.miniphysics.com/a-c-generator.html
388
LESSON 47: THE TRANSFORMER
Learning objectives
describe the structure of a basic iron-cored transformer as used for voltage transformations.
describe the principle of operation of a transformer.
use the equations (Vp/Vs) = (Np/Ns) and VpIp = VsIs (for 100% efficiency) in calculations.
perform experiments to demonstrate the difference between a step-up transformer and a step-
down transformer.
describe the use of the transformer in high voltage transmission of electricity.
give the advantage of high voltage transmission.
Social context
Have you ever seen green metal boxes that look like this ? What are they for? What is
inside these boxes?
Figure 55: A Picture of a Transformer Box
Sources: https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Distribution_transformer
Better still; your cell phone battery needs only about 6 – 12volts only but the electricity on
the wall sockets is about 240v. How then does your phone not explode? Why is the charger of
your cell phone heavy? What do you think is inside it?
389
Using what you learnt in lesson 39, do you think you can explain what will happen to the
bulbs in coils A and B if we do this?
Figure 56: Mutual Induction
Adapted from:
The theory of electromagnetic inducton has taught us that when the magnet approaches coil
A its magnetic field reaches the coil and the closer the magnet comes to the coil the stronger
the field that reaches the coil..This means a changing field cuts the coil and emf is induced in
coil A.
The induced current in Coil A sets up a magnetic field around coil A. This magnetic field
induces emf in coil B.
What if we replace the magnet with a cell as shown below?
390
Figure 57: Replacing the Inducing Magnet with a d.c. Power Source
Source:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/electromagnetic_induction/co_efficient_of_mutual_induction
.asp
On closing switch S, emf builds up in coil A. This builds up a changing magnetic field that
cuts coil B and induces emf in coil B and the bulb lights. However, the current in coil A
eventually becomes steady and there is no longer a changing magnetic field hence the bulb
goes off showing that there is no longer any induced emf in coil B.
What if we replace the cell with an a.c. source?
391
Figure 58: Replacing the Inducing Magnet with an a.c. Power Source
Source
https://www.simply.science/images/content/physics/Electromagnetism/EM_induction/Conce
pt_map/Types_of_Induction.html
With an a.c. source in coil A, we have a constantly changing magnetic field in coil A that cuts
coil B hence a relatively steady emf is induced in Coil B. However, as you can see some of
the field lines are falling outside the coil. What do you think will be the effect of this on the
amount of the induced e.m.f. in coil B? How can we minimise this impact? Let us see how
below.
What about if we join the two coils with an iron core?
As you have seen above, without the iron core, some of the magnetic field does not reach the
coil; this means that we will not have the maximum induced emf possible. To rectify this, we
join the two coils with an iron core as shown below.
Figure 59: Joining the Inductance Coils with an Iron Core
Source:https://www.electrical4u.com/what-is-transformer-definition-working-principle-of-
transformer/
392
The iron core helps in two ways:
It collects the magnetic field and directs it into coil B
Because it is a soft magnetic material, it also get magnetised hence increasing the amount of
magnetic field in both coils.
From (i) – (iv) We have just described the concept of a simple TRANSFORMER! Look in
your dictionary for the meaning of the word Transform… If this device is called a
transformer, what is it transforming and how?
What are Transformers?
A transformer is an electrical device designed to transfer alternating current or voltage from

one electric circuit to another by means of electromagnetic induction. An electrical
transformer converts AC voltage from one value to another. It can be designed to increase -
“step-up” or decrease -“step-down” voltages.
Structure of a transformer
As you have seen above, a transformer consists of a pair of coils wound on an iron core as
shown in figure 58 below.
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Figure 60: A Transformer
Adapted from: https://www.analogictips.com/mutual-inductance-transformers-emf-becomes-

emi/
The (red) coil which supplies the a.c. voltage is called the Primary Coil or the Input Coil
and (blue) coil which uses the transformed e.m.f is called the Secondary Coil or the Output
Coil.
It has the following symbol.
394
Figure 61: Transformer Symbol
The number of turns (N) in each coil is very important as it is this number of turns that
determine if your transformer is a step up or a step down transformer. Remember in lesson 39
we indicated that the number of turns in the coil affects the induced emf or the magnetic field
around the coil?
If there are more turns in the primary coil, than in the secondary coil, then less emf will be
induced in the secondary coil. This is a step down transformer because it has given out less
emf than that came in! Can you figure out how a step up transformer should be like?
Figure 62: Step - Down & Step - Up Transformers
How transformers work
A transformer needs an alternating current that will create a changing magnetic field. A
changing magnetic field induces a changing voltage in a coil. This is the basis of how a
transformer works:
The primary coil is connected to an AC supply.
An alternating current passes through a primary coil wrapped around a soft iron core.
This changing current produces a changing magnetic field which cuts the secondary coil.
This induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil.
This induces an alternating current (AC) in the circuit connected to the secondary coil.
Calculating Voltages: The Transformer Equation
395
The amount of induced voltage/current in the secondary coil depends on the number of turns
in the secondary coil. The ratio between the voltages in the coils is the same as the ratio of the
number of turns in the coils.
Figure 63: The Transformer Equation
Adapted form: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/indmut.html
primary voltage turns on primary

=
secondary voltage turns on secondary
This can also be written as:
V𝑝 N𝑝
=
V𝑆 N𝑆
Ideal power equation
If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is
perfectly efficient – this means that all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary
circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit.
If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power:
where Ip and Is are the primary and secondary currents, respectively giving the ideal
transformer equation:
If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. So, for the ideal
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transformer, if the p.d. is doubled the current is halved. In practice, it is more than halved,
because of small energy losses in the transformer arising from the following three causes that
we will discuss shortly.
Examples
Describe the principle of operation of a transformer. (3)
The alternating current in the primary coil produces an alternating magnetic field in the soft-
iron core. This changing magnetic field cuts the secondary coil and induces an alternating
current in the secondary coil.
A transformer has 20 turns on the primary and 400 on the secondary. What is the output
voltage if the input voltage is 500V? (2)
Answer:
Vp
/Vs = Np/Ns
Therefore Vs/Vp = Ns/Np

Vs
/500 = 400/20
Vs = 500 x (400/20)
Vs= 10,000 Volts
A transformer steps down the mains supply from 230 V to 10 V to operate a mobile phone
charger.
(a) What is the turns ratio of the transformer windings? (2)
(b) How many turns are on the primary if the secondary has 100 turns? (2)
(c) What is the current in the primary if the transformer is 100% efficient and the current in
the answering machine is 2 A? (2)
(d) Is this transformer a step up or a step down transformer? (1)
(e) Explain you answer to (d) above. (1)
397
Answers
(a) Primary voltage, Vp = 230 V
Secondary voltage, Vs = 10 V
Turns ratio = Vs/Vp = Ns/Np
= 10V/230V
= 1/23
(b) Secondary turns, Ns = 100; Vp = 230 V; VS = 10 V
From a,
NP/Ns = 1/23
∴ Np = 23 × Ns
= 23 × 100
= 2300 turns
(c) Efficiency = 100%
This means that:
Power in primary = power in secondary
Vp × Ip = Vs × Is
Ip = (Vs x Is)/Vp
Ip = (10V x 2A)/230V
Ip = 0.087A
Note In this ideal transformer the current is stepped up in the same ratio as the voltage is
stepped down.
(d) It is a step down transformer.
(e) The input voltage is higher than the output voltage.
Transmission
Electricity is generated on a large scale at power stations like at Morupule in Palapye and
398
then transmitted through cables called the National Grid to factories and homes. Copper
cables carrying the electricity are buried in the ground or aluminium cables are suspended
from pylons.
Aluminium is used because it has a low density and can safely be suspended from
inexpensive thin pylons.
Pylons have the disadvantage that they look ugly on the landscape but have the advantage of
easy access to the cables for maintenance and repair. Transmission using pylons is cheaper
than burying cables underground.
Transformers are used to produce a very high voltage for the transmission of electricity, to
minimise energy loss. Let us look at how this works.
A generator at a power station might produce electricity with a voltage of 25,000V and a
current of 8,000A. Such a large current would cause the cables of the National Grid to get hot
because of the heating effect of current. To reduce the energy loss, a step up transformer at
the power station is used to raise the voltage to 400,000V.This is 16 times the input voltage
of 25,000V. This will reduce the current to only 8000A/16 = 5A which is likely to cause very
minimal power loss.
Energy losses in a transformer
In a transformer, energy could be lost due to:
1. heat loss due to resistance in coils
2. leakage of magnetic field lines between primary and secondary coils
3. heat loss due to eddy currents induced in iron core
If you want to know more about transformers you can visit this site
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjwzpoCiF8A to watch it on video.
Task Questions
1. A transformer is needed to step down a 240 V a.c. supply to a 12 V a.c. output.
399
(a) In the space below, draw a labelled diagram of a suitable transformer. [3]
(b) Explain
(i) why the transformer only works on a.c.,
............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) how the input voltage is changed to an output voltage.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................[2]
(c) The output current is 1.5 A.
Calculate
(i) the power output,
power = ........................[2]
(ii) the energy output in 30 s.
energy = ........................[2]
2. A transformer has 20 000 turns on the primary coil and 400 turns on the secondary coil.
The efficiency of the transformer is 100%.
(a) Determine the output of the transformer when the input is an a.c. supply of 240 V,
50 Hz.
400
output = ………………………..[3]
(b) The transformer is used to operate a 9.6 W lamp from the 240 V supply.
Calculate
(i) the current in the coil,
secondary current = ………………………..[2]
(ii) the current in the primary coil.
primary current = ………………………..[2]
3. The generators at a power station produce a voltage of 25 000 V. This voltage is stepped
up to 400 000 V by a transformer for long-distance transmission on overhead power lines.
The voltage is later stepped down to 240 V.
a) (i) State and explain why the voltage is stepped up for long-distance transmission.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................ [2]
(ii) Calculate the ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil of the step-up transformer to
the number of turns in its secondary coil.
ratio = .......................................................... [1]
(iii) State one advantage and one disadvantage of using thicker wire in the overhead power
lines.
advantage: ..........................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
401
disadvantage: ......................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
[2]
b) State two reasons why it is cheaper to transmit electrical energy at high voltage.
1.........................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
2.........................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
(iii) State one way in which energy is lost from the transformer, and from which part it is lost.
........................................................................................................................................ [2]
(iv) State one way of reducing the energy loss in the transformer
........................................................................................................................................ [1]
c) The input is changed from alternating current to direct current.
Explain why the transformer has no output.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................ [2]
Summary
In this topic, we have gathered that:
A transformer that increases the voltage is called a step-up transformer. Step-up

transformers have more turns on the secondary coil than they do on the primary coil.
A transformer that decreases the voltage is called a step-down transformer. Step-down

transformers have fewer turns on the secondary coil than they do on the primary coil.
Step-down transformers are used in mains adapters and rechargers for mobile phones and CD
players.
There is no electrical connection between the primary and the secondary coils.
402
Transformers only work if AC is supplied to the primary coil. A transformer does not work
with dc supplies as it based on electromagnetic induction principle.
Reference
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/electromagnetic_induction/co_efficient_of_mutual_induction
.asp
https://www.analogictips.com/mutual-inductance-transformers-emf-becomes-emi/
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Distribution_transformer
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/indmut.html
http://www.betaengineering.com/high-voltage-industry-blog/transmitting-electricity-at-high-
voltages
https://www.quora.com/Why-is-it-cheaper-to-transmit-electricity-in-higher-voltage-and-
lower-current
403
LESSON 48: ATOMIC PHYSICS - RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS
General Objectives
appreciate the existence of radioactive emissions
Learning objectives
describe the process of radioactivity.
give examples of radioactive materials.
state the dangers of exposure to radioactive emissions.
state that alpha, beta and gamma emissions can be emitted during the process of radioactivity
describe the safe handling and storage of radioactive material in a laboratory.
describe methods of detection of these emissions by Geiger-Muller tubes.
show awareness of the existence of background radiation.
Social context
You might have seen this sign somewhere. What does it mean?
404
Photo taken at Prodent dental hospital, Gaborone
This sign warns people that there radioactive material around the area. Now what do we mean
when we say a material is radioactive? Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of an
isotope there by trying to be stable. As the isotope disintegrates it release any of the three
possible emissions namely alpha (α) particle, beta (β) particle, and gamma (γ) rays.
Some of the materials that are radioactive are: Cobalt-60, Uranium-238, Uranium-235,
Potassium-40, Carbon-14 and others.
So why are we warned against these emissions? When one gets exposed to the emissions at a
considerable amount the following can happen.
changes in blood chemistry.
nausea
vomiting
hair loss
destruction of intestinal lining
damage to the central nervous system and loss of consciousness
405
cancer
Due to all these dangers it calls for safe handling and storage of these sources. Some of the
techniques are:
always wear the appropriate protective clothing:
always wear gloves when handling radioactive substances. Regularly check the
radiation level of these gloves . Never touch anything with potentially contaminated gloves;
use paper tissues instead.
Wash your hands thoroughly when you leave the lab.
Regularly check the radiation level of your working area and all objects used, or at least at
the end of each working day. Replace contaminated absorption paper. Decontaminate
contaminated objects.
Use tongs to handle the radioactive sources.
Dispose of all radioactive waste in the appropriate containers. Limit the amount of waste to a
bare minimum. Separate short-living and long-living radioactive waste.
The sources are stored in concrete or lead containers to reduce the amount of radiation
outside.
Now how can you detect that there is radiation around? A Geiger counter (Geiger-Muller
tube) is a device used for the detection and measurement of all types of radiation: alpha, beta
and gamma radiation. The GM tube just detects and the rate meter counts the amount of
radiation detected.
In our earth there is naturally occurring radiation which we are always exposed to. This is
called background radiation. Normally the levels are very low to causes any potential harm to
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living organisms. These radiations come from outer space, the earth itself as it has naturally
radioactive rocks.
Examples
1. How does radioactivity occur?
Answer
Radioactivity occurs when the unstable nucleus disintegrates spontaneously there by trying to
be stable.
2. Give any two radioactive materials.
Any two of the following, Cobalt-60, Uranium-238, Uranium-235, Potassium-40, Carbon-14

and others.
3. State any two dangers of exposure to radioactive emissions.
changes in blood chemistry.
nausea
vomiting
hair loss
destruction of intestinal lining
damage to the central nervous system and loss of consciousness
cancer Any two
Task questions
1. Give the emissions that are leased during radioactivity.
2. Describe the term background radiation
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3. Describe one method of detecting radiation
Summary
Radioactivity occurs naturally and randomly. When it occurs one or more of these emissions
can be released, alpha (α) particle, beta (β) particle, and gamma (γ) rays. These emissions are
dangerous to the human body. The dangers include mutation to body cells leading to cancer.
Due to these dangers care must be taken to reduce these risks.
References
https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-examples-of-radioactive-materials
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-radioactive-health/radioactive-substances-and-their-
impact-on-health-idUSTRE72N6LJ20110324
https://admin.kuleuven.be/sab/vgm/kuleuven/en/riskactivities/rp/RadiationProtectionPrecauti
ons.html
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LESSON 49: CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS
Learning objectives
show understanding that radioactive emissions occur randomly over space and time.
state, for each radioactive emission:
(i) its nature
(ii) its relative ionising effect
(iii) its relative penetrating power
describe their deflection in electric fields.
interpret their relative ionising effects.
We have seen in lesson 1 that radio activity occurs spontaneously and randomly over space
and time. How do we differentiate the two terms, spontaneous and random? Spontaneous
means the decay is not dependent upon any external environmental conditions like
temperature, pressure, magnetic/electric field). Random means the radioactive material does
not emit the same number of emissions every time.
We have also seen that that during the decay process any of the three emissions can be
emitted α, β, and or γ. Let us now look at what these are. We will at their nature (what they
are), their ionization effect (their ability to knock off electrons from atoms to make them
ions), and their penetration power (how far in a material an object the emission can pass
through).
Emission Nature Equation Ionisation Charge Penetration

symbol effect power
α Has 2 protons and 2 4

2𝐻𝑒 High +2 Blocked by paper
neutrons
Similar to Helium ion
β High energy electron −1

0𝑒 medium -1 Blocked by at least
from the nucleus 3 mm aluminium
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γ Electromagnetic wave γ Very low 0 Reduced by thick
lead
The diagram below shows their penetration power relative to each other
Source: https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/z2qq4qt/revision/2
Since some of these emissions have charge, when they pass through an electric field, they
will be deflected as the two fields interact.
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The diagram shows that;
Beta particles are deflected towards the positively charged plate because beta particle is
negatively charged
Alpha particles are deflected towards the negatively charged plate because alpha particle has
a positive charge
Gamma rays are not deflected as they do not have any charge.
The laws of charges are used in this situation. The law says
LIKE CHARGES REPEL AND THE UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT.
QUESTIONS
1. State the nature of the three radioactive emissions.
α Has 2 protons and 2

neutrons
β High energy electron from

the nucleus
γ Electromagnetic wave
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2. Give the charge for each of the three emissions.
α +2
β -1
γ 0
3. List the emissions in order of the least ionizing to the most ionizing.
γ, β, and α
Self-Assessment questions
1. List the emissions in order of the most penetrating to the least penetrating.
γ, β, and α
2. Complete the diagram below to show the possible path of the three emissions.
Summary
Radioactive emissions occur randomly over space and time. Random means the radioactive
material does not emit the same number of emissions every time.
412
The table below summarizes nature, ionizing effect and the penetration power of the three
emissions.
Emissio Nature Equation Ionisation Charg Penetration power

n symbol effect e
α Has 2 protons and 2 4

2𝐻𝑒 High +2 Blocked by paper
neutrons
β High energy electron from −1

0𝑒 medium -1 Blocked by at least 3
the nucleus mm aluminium
γ Electromagnetic wave γ Very low 0 Reduced by thick

lead
References
https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/z2qq4qt/revision/2
https://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/about/what_is_ir/en/
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LESSON 50: USES AND DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
Learning objectives
state the uses of radioactive materials in industries, agriculture, medicine and production of
electricity.
describe the dangers of waste products of radioactive materials and give suggestions on safer
disposal of these waste products.
We have seen that radioactive materials can release the harmful emissions. Nevertheless we
can use them to benefit us, like the examples below.
a) In industry
There are many industrial uses of radioactive materials some of the uses include
Sterilization
Some radiation devices are used to sterilize consumer products. The devices used to do this
are called irradiators and generally contain a gamma-emitting sealed source or sources.
gauging applications
The use of radiation in devices used to gauge (measure or monitor) certain activities is
probably one of the widest uses in industry. These devices, which can be portable or set in a
fixed position, can monitor the flow of liquids; can measure and control the thickness of
metals, films, paper, and plastic; and can monitor material density.
Electricity production
Nuclear power is used to generate electricity in a nuclear reactor. The radioactive source
heats water which is changed into steam. This steam drives the turbines which generate
electricity
b) In agriculture
Insect pest management
Unwanted mutations in plants can be prevented by gamma radiations that improve the yield.
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The phosphorus content in a fertilizer can be determined with the help of radio phosphorous.
Metabolism and transport of minerals are studied with the help of radioisotopes
c) In medicine
Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide diagnostic information about the functioning of a
person's specific organs, or to treat them. Diagnostic procedures using radioisotopes are now
routine.
Radiotherapy can be used to treat some medical conditions, especially cancer, using radiation
to weaken or destroy particular targeted cells.
Sterilization of medical equipment is also an important use of radioisotopes.
We have seen how radioactive materials are useful in our lives. Sometimes the wastes from
using these materials are also radioactive, and we have seen how dangerous the radioactive
materials can be. They are hazardous and toxic. For example, Plutonium has been stated to
be 'the most toxic substance on earth' and so hazardous that 'a speck can kill'
So now how can we safely manage these wastes? Below are some of the ways that we can
use
Radioactive wastes are stored so as to avoid any chance of radiation exposure to people, or
any pollution.
The radioactivity of the wastes decays with time, providing a strong incentive to store high-
level waste for about 50 years before disposal.
Disposal of low-level waste is straightforward and can be undertaken safely almost

anywhere.
Storage of used fuel is normally under water for at least five years and then often in dry
storage.
Deep geological disposal is widely agreed to be the best solution for final disposal of the
most radioactive waste produced.
QUESTIONS
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1. State any two uses of radioactive materials in agriculture.
Answer
Insect pest management
Unwanted mutations in plants can be prevented by gamma radiations that improve the yield.
The phosphorus content in a fertilizer can be determined with the help of radio phosphorous.
Metabolism and transport of minerals are studied with the help of radioisotopes. Any two
2. Give any two dangers of radioactive materials
Answer
They are hazardous and toxic.
Self-Assessment questions
1. State any two uses of radioactive materials in medicine.
2. Describe any method of disposal of radio active waste
SUMMARY
Radioactive materials can be used in industries, agriculture, medicine and production of

electricity.
Radioactive materials are Toxic and hazardous.
Deep geological disposal is widely agreed to be the best solution for final disposal of the
REFERENCES
416
http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/non-power-nuclear-
applications/radioisotopes-research/radioisotopes-in-industry.aspx
http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/non-power-nuclear-
applications/radioisotopes-research/radioisotopes-in-medicine.aspx
https://chemistry.tutorvista.com/nuclear-chemistry/uses-of-radioisotopes.html
https://www.radiationanswers.org/radiation-sources-uses/industrial-uses.html
417
ANSWERS TO TASK QUESTIONS
MAKING MEASUREMENTS 1
a) 2400M
b) 0.55cm
c) 56 000000J
d) 0.0098 Kg
e) 0.000035Kg
f) 0.000077S
𝑁
a) 𝐾𝑔 × 𝐾𝑔 = N
𝐾𝑔
b) 𝑚3 = 𝐾𝑔/𝑚3
c) 𝑁 × 𝑚 = 𝑁𝑚
MEAKING MEASUREMENTS II
Task questions 1
a) Fig 1.1: Accuracy 0.2A Reading 2.8A
Fig 1.2: Accuracy 1v Reading: 12v
Fig 1.3: Accuracy 0.02A Reading: 0.26v
2 (a) State the accuracy of both ammeters
Analogue ammeter 0.1A
Digital ammeter 0.01A
(b) The digital ammeter as it measures small currents to two decimal places.
Task Questions 2
418
F/N
a/m/s2
b) Statement: Yes they do
Justification: The graph is a straight line through the origin showing that F is directly
proportional to a.
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c)
𝑦 2 − 𝑦1
𝑚 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
3.0𝑁 − 0.65𝑁
𝑚 =
2.10𝑁 − 0.25𝑁
𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝒌𝒈
MEASURING LENGTH – VERNIER CALIPER
1. Reading the vernier caliper
1. 2. 3.
8.6 cm + 0.02cm 0.0cm + 0.06cm 6.4cm + 0.03cm

= 8.62cm = 0.06cm = 6.43cm
4. 5. 6.
1.0cm + 0.06cm 5.3cm + 0.01cm 3.8cm + 0.03cm

= 1.06cm = 5.31cm = 3.83cm
7. 8. 9.
4.3cm + 0.07cm 7.0cm + 0.05cm 0.2cm + 0.04cm

4.37cm 7.05cm 0.24cm
2. Positive error
Error 0.06cm Reading 6.43cm Actual reading 0.06 + 6.43cm = 6.49cm
Error + 0.03cm Reading 5.31cm Actual reading 0.03 + 5.31cm = 5.34cm

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3. Negative error
MEASURING LENGTH – MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE
1. Zero Error: +0.01 mm Observed Reading: 8.69 mm
Corrected Reading: 8.68 mm
2. Zero Error: 0.00 mm Observed Reading: 7.00 mm
Corrected Reading: No need
3. Zero Error: -0.02 mm Observed Reading: 13.45 mm
4. Zero Error: -0.03 mm Observed Reading: 13.15 mm
5. Zero Error: - 0.04 mm Observed Reading: 3.50 mm
6. Zero Error: +0.03 mm Observed Reading: 3.74 mm
7. Zero Error: 0.00 mm Observed Reading: 18.40 mm
Corrected Reading: No need
MEASURING TIME
(a) (i) The time taken to complete one oscillation

421
(ii) A complete movement from A to C back to A
(b) It helps reduce the effects of human reaction time error.
(c) (i) The period increases because the pendulum would move slowly when the gravity is
less.
(ii) The period of the pendulum remains unchanged as mass does not affect the period of the
pendulum.
(iii) The period will increase. As length increases, the period also increases.
MASS, WEIGHT, INERTIA AND CENTRE OF MASS
(a)
(i) (W =)mg or 0.5 × 3.7 = 1.8/1.85/1.9 N
(ii) 3.7 m/s2 not N/kg
(iii) (KE =) 1/2mv2 = 0.5 × 0.50 × 3.22 = 2.6 or 2.56 J A1 [6]
(b)
(i) A compares/measures (unknown and known) masses/amount of matter
B measures/is dependent on weight/force of gravity (and hence mass obtained)
Mars weights/forces of gravity are less than/different from (Earth)
(ii) A or lever arm balance or balance with discs
2.
(a) The car.
It has less inertia than the bus due to its small mass.
(b) Seat belts exert large forces to prevent passengers from flying out through the windscreen.
422
3.
(a) 50 Kg
(b) W=mg
W=50kg x 10N/kg
=500N
(c)
W=mg
W=50kg x 10N/kg x1/6
=83.3N
4.
Three or more small holes are drilled in the lamina and then suspend it from one hole with a
pin or nail as shown above. A plumb line is suspended from the pin and its position is marked
with a cross. The lamina is then hung from a second hole and the position of the plumb line is
marked again. In each case the center of gravity must be vertically below the point of
suspension, so the center of gravity must be where the two lines cross. A repeat can also be
done with a third hole.
MOTION 1
1. velocity has direction whereas speed does not have direction
2. i). Displacement is the distance covered in a specified direction
ii). Velocity is the distance covered per second in a specified direction.
MOTION 2
1. A – non-uniform velocity
B – non-uniform velocity
C – non-uniform velocity
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D – uniform velocity
2. i). a = 0.7 m/s2
d = 140 m
ii).a = 0 m/s2
d = 280 m
MOTION 3
1. 675 m
2. 10 m/s
MOTION 4
1. a). v = 40 m/s
b). s = 80 m
2. a). v = 0 m/s
b). u = 2.24 m/s
MOTION 5
1. Velocity increases from zero until it reaches a constant value, terminal velocity
2.
Changes
Increases Decreases No change
Weight of object 
Liquid drag 
Acceleration due to gravity 
Acceleration of the object 
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EFFECT OF FORCE ON SHAPE AND SIZE
1.
Load/N Mass/kg Length/cm Extension/cm
0 0.0 7 0
5 0.5 10 3
10 1.0 13 6
15 1.5 16 9
Therefore, m = 1.5 kg
Or simply:
e = ln - lo
e = 10 cm – 7 cm
e = 3 cm
and the extension caused by the 16cm is:
e = ln - lo
e = 16 cm – 7 cm
e = 9 cm
So:
Fαe
5 N : 3 cm
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b N : 9 cm
5 N × 9 cm
b= 3 cm
b = 15N
mass m = 15 N÷ 10 N/kg
m = 1.5 Kg
2.
Load/N Length/cm Extension/cm
0 8 0
6 11 3
12 14 6
18 17 9
24 20 12
30 23 15
36 27 18
The table shows that our answer lies somewhere between 30 N and 36 N. To find the precise
value we will have to use Hooke’s law:
From the diagram, our e is shown to be 3 cm. can you see the 3cm in the second diagram?
That is the one we are referring to. The extension caused by W is given as:
e = ln - lo
e = 24 cm – 8 cm
e = 16 cm
426
So:
Fαe
6 N : 3 cm
W N : 16 cm
6 N × 16 cm
b= 3 cm
b = 32N
Just as we thought!
3.
ln = lo + e
ln = 15.2 cm + 2.1 cm
ln = 17.3 cm
4. (a) lo = 30 cm
(b)
W/N l/mm e/mm
0 30 0
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1 32 2
2 33 3
3 36 6
4 39 9
5 40 10
6 42 12
Plot the graph of e / mm (y-axis) against W/N (x-axis).

e/mm
Load/N
428
(e) Calculate the gradient, G, of line. Show clearly on the graph how you obtained the
necessary information.
𝑦 2 − 𝑦1
𝐺 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
11𝑚𝑚 − 3𝑚𝑚
𝐺 =
5.5𝑁 − 1.5𝑁
𝑮 = 𝟐𝒎𝒎/𝑵
(f) Calculate the spring constant of the spring, k, using the equation:
1
𝑘=
𝐺
1
𝑘=
2𝑚𝑚/𝑁
𝒌 = 𝑶. 𝟓𝑵/𝒎𝒎
TURNING EFFECT OF FORCE
1 (a) moment
(b) Moment = Fs
= 20N × 20cm
= 40Ncm
Or
Moment = Fs
429
= 20N × 0.20m
= 4Nm
(c) 1. Use a longer spanner to increases the perpendicular distance / length
2. Use a greater force
2. a) At equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of anticlockwise

moments.
b) i) Moment = Fs
= 200N × 1.5m
= 300Nm
ii) Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
300Nm = F x 3m
W = 300Ncm/3m
W= 100 N
3. Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
8N × 40cm = F x 10cm
320Ncm = 10FNm
W = 320Ncm/10m
W= 32 N
EFFECT OF FORCE ON MOTION
1.
A force can:
Move a stationary object
Increase the speed of a moving object
430
Change the direction of a moving object
Stop a moving object
m = 1200 kg; FA = 3400 N; FF = 400 N; FR =?
FR = FA - FF
FR = (3400N – 400N)
FR = 3000 N
Therefore:
FR = ma
FR
a=
m
3000𝑁
𝑎=
1200𝐾𝑔
a = 2.5 m/s2
m = 1.4 Kg; FA = 12 N + 4N; Fr = 9 N
𝐅𝐑
𝐚=
𝐦
(12N + 4N) − 9N
a =
1.4 Kg
a = 5m/s2
a)
FA = 1000N; Fr = 250N; FR = ?
FR = FA - Fr
= 1000N - 750 N
= 250N
The speed of the car will increase
iii) Name: Drag force
Cause: Air friction

431
iv) FR = 250N; m = 1 250Kg; a=?
𝐹𝑅
𝑎= 𝑚
250𝑁
𝑎= 1250 𝐾𝑔
𝒂 = 0.20 m/s2
b) i) The car reaches a constant speed because the driving force balances the drag force; F A =
Fr
ii) Terminal Velocity
0N (zero Newton)
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
ENERGY
Q1.
KE = ½ mv2
= ½ x 30kg x (15m/s)2
= 15kg x 225m2/s2
KE = 3375J
Q2.
G.P.E = mgh
= 2kg x 10m/s2 x 2.5m
G.P.E= 50J
Q3.
KE=50J
Energy gained (KE) = energy lost (G.P.E)
432
WORK AND ENERGY
Q 1.
W=Fs
=300N x 8m
=2400Nm
W =2400joules
Q2.
W=Fs
=450N x 1.5m
=675Nm
W=675joules
WORK AND POWER
Q1.
P = 400J/20s
P = 20 W
Q2.
2kW = W/180s
W = 2kWx180s
W = 360kJ
Q3.
2kW = 10MJ/t
t = 10MJ/2kW
t = 5000s
433
THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER
1. Another way. Insert a balloon at the neck of a flask. Heat the flask lightly. The balloon will
inflate to show that gases expand when heated.
2. gases, liquids, and finally solids.
THERMAL TRANSFER - CONDUCTION
a) i) Conduction
ii)
When heat is applied to end X the heat energy is given to the atoms and they vibrate and
move faster and so their kinetic energy increases.
The vibrating atoms bump into neighbouring atoms and pass on their kinetic energy.
These atoms then pass on their kinetic energy to atoms close to them and so on. In this way
the heat energy moves through the substance.
When the block is heated the bonds between the particles are weakened particles move
further apart from each other occupying a larger volume.
a) Copper is a better conductor of heat than iron
b) i) They conduct a lot of heat away from the skin
ii) Unlike non-metals, metals have free electrons which conduct a lot more heat energy
than just the vibration of atoms.
iii) Plastic is used as insulation as it is a poor conductor of heat.
a) i) Copper is a good conductor of heat
ii) Plastic can insulate against heat
b) i) Conduction
ii) Convection and radiation.
434
THERMAL TRANSFER - CONVECTION
a) The heating coil is placed at the bottom of the kettle to aid transfer of thermal energy in
water by convection.
b)
c) When the kettle is being heated up, the water around the heating coil will be heated up and
it expands, causing it to be less dense. The heated water would then rise while the cooler
regions in the upper part of the kettle would then descend to replace the heated water.
THERMAL TRANSFER - RADIATION
1.a) i) Monitor the temperature of the water in each can over time as we heat. Switch of the
burner and continue monitoring the temperature of the water in both cans for some more
time.
ii) The temperature of water in the can painted black should rise and fall faster.
iii) The cans should be the same distance from the bunsen burner.
WAVES
1. Answer
v = fλ
8 = 10xλ
λ = 0.8 m
435
2. Answer
First convert the 10 cm to m, that will be 0.1 m then apply the wave equation
v = fλ
v = 400 x 0.1
v = 40 m/s
LIGHT
REFRACTION
Q1
n = sini/sinr
n = sin 45/sin 30
n = 1.4
Q2
n = real depth/ apparent depth
n = 2m/1.5m
n = 1.33
Q3
1.33 = 3m/apparent depth
Apparent depth = 3m/1.33
Apparent depth = 2.3m
TOTAL INTERNAL REFRACTION
Q1. Incident angle is the angle at which an incident ray falls on to a medium.
436
Q2. n =sini/sinr
=sin45/sin30
n =1.41
Q3. Diagram 2
LENSES
Q1 A convex lens is thick at its centre while a concave lens is thin around the edges
Q2 focal lens is the point at oncoming parallel light rays falling on to a lens are converged to
or seem to be coming from
Q3 Virtual
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Q1. Radio, microwave, infra-red, visible light, ultra violet, X-Ray and Gamma ray.
Q2. X-ray.
Q3. Radio waves are produced when electrons in wires are excited and start vibrating or
oscillating very fast.
SPEED OF EM WAVES
Q1. Speed = 300 000 000 m/s
Q2. f = 4.28571x1014Hz
λ = 7x10-7m
c=?
equation: c = f λ
= 4.28571x1014Hz X 7x10-7m
c = 3x108m/s
Q3. Statement a is not true
437
SOUND
Answers 1
a) Longitudinal wave
b) (i) on the trough
(ii) on the crest
(c) The air particles ………………………………………….
(d) v = 340m/s; f = 200Hz; λ=? v = fλ

𝑣
𝜆 = 𝑓
340𝑚/𝑠
𝜆 = 200𝐻𝑧
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝒎
a)
b) i) a compression –
ii) a rarefaction –
c) A wave that travels in the same direction as the vibrations

2𝑛𝑠
d) v = 340m/s; s = 50m; t=? 𝑣 = 𝑡
2𝑛𝑠
𝑡 = 𝑣
2×1×50𝑚
𝑡 = 340𝑚/𝑠
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝒔
Answers 2
Statement: the air decreases until it is not heard completely
Explanation: sound cannot travel through a vacuum.
Answers 3
438
a) Wooden blocks, measuring tape and stop watch.
b) distance and time
c) distance is multiplied by 2 then divided by time
d)
Speeds/m/s Air Water Concrete
10
100
1000
6000
Remember the rules of answering calculation questions we learnt in LESSON 2? List the
variables first then write down the equation
a) λ = 5 × 10–7 m; C = 3 × 108 m/s f=? C = fλ
𝐶
f=
λ
3 × 108 m/s
f=
5 × 10−7 m
3 m/s
f = ( ) × 108−(−7)
5 m
f = 0.60 × 1015 Hz
𝒇 = 𝟔. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝑯𝒛
b i) t = 3.6s; v = 340m/s; s = ?
𝑠
v= s = vt
t
s = 340m/s × 3.6 s
s = 1224m
439
3. a) sound that have a frequency that is above human hearing.
b)
Ultrasound Radio waves
Longitudinal Transverse
Need a medium to travel through Travel in vacuum
Speed in the range of hundreds to Speed in the range of hundreds of millions

thousands m/s m/s
Sound waves Electromagnetic waves
c)i) v = 1500m/s; f = 50,000hz; λ = ?; v = fλ

v
λ=
f
1500m/s
λ=
50 000Hz
𝛌 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝐦
2𝑛𝑠
ii) S = 1200m; t = ?; v= t
2𝑛𝑠
t=
v
2 × 1 × 1200𝑚
t=
1500m/s
𝐭 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝐬
Answers 4
1. Q is louder than P because it has bigger amplitude/height.
Q is higher (pitch/note) than P because it has higher frequency or shorter wavelength or

waves closer together.
2.
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Answers 5
An overtone is defined as any frequency produced by an instrument which is greater than the
fundamental frequency and gives/defines the quality of a sound.
i) This can be defined as the audibleness of a sound. Loudness depends on the amplitude of
the sound wave. The larger the amplitude the more energy the sound wave contains therefore
the louder the sound
ii) Pitch is a term used to describe how high or low a note a being played by a musical
instrument or sung seems to be. The pitch of a note depends on the frequency of the source of
the sound. A high frequency produces a high pitched note and a low frequency produces a
low pitched note.
iii) Quality of sound, also known as timbre, is a characteristic of sound that explains why the
same note from different instruments sound different. The quality of a note depends upon the
waveform, specifically on the overtones that the instrument imposes on the fundamental
frequency.
MAGNETISM LESSON 2
1. Stroke a magnetic material with a permanent magnet in one direction. This aligns the
domains in one direction.
441
2. Pass a magnet through a coil carrying alternating current. The domains disorients until they
completely lose their original pattern.
MAGNETISM LESSON 3
Follow the procedure below
Step 1: Trace out the magnet at the center of the paper;
Step 2: Start by positioning the compass near one pole of the magnet.
Step 3: Mark out two dots, A and B that are aligned with the direction of compass needle.
Step 4: Move the compass so that the end of the needle is now directly over B and mark out
third dot C.
Step 5: Repeat the process until the compass comes back to another pole of magnet.
Step 6: Join all the dots and this will give the pattern of magnetic field line.
Step 7: Repeat the whole process by starting at different points of magnet, a magnetic field
pattern will be obtained.
PRACTICAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY
USE OF ELECTRICITY
Q1. Electricity can be used for heating, lighting, driving machines/appliances and for security
Q2. P = VI
= 230V x 8A
P = 1840W
Q3. Cost = Units x Unit cost
= Pxt x Unit cost
=1200W x 5hours x P0.80
Cost = P48.00
DANGERS OF ELECTRICITY
1 Electrical fire and electrocution
2 Connecting more than one plugs in a single socket
442
3 Long cables are more resistant to current flow than short cable. As it resists flow it heats up
causing insulation damage and at time causing fire.
HOUSE WIRING SYSTEM
Q1 To avoid shock when the user touches the metal casing of a faulty appliance
Q2 Live, Neutral and Earth
Q3 I = P/V
= 1800W/240V
I = 7.5 A
And the best fuse rating for this appliance would be 10A so that the fuse won’t blow at
normal operation
Ans = 10Amps fuse
ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS
1. a) Electromagnetic induction
b) It moves to the right
c) Nothing happens
There is no changing magnetic field
2. a) i) When the magnet approaches the coil, a changing the magnetic field is produced that
cuts the coil and a current is induced in the coil.
ii) 1. move the magnet faster
2. use a stronger magnet
3. increase the number of turns in the coil
3. a) When the handle rotates, the magnet produces a changing magnetic field that cuts the
coil and current is then induced in the coil.
b) The weaker force moves the magnet slowly hence reducing the amount of current
induced hence reduced light.
c) Increase the number of turns in the coil.
443
THE a.c. GENERATOR
1.
(a) (i) Electromagnetic induction
(ii)
The coil rotates within the magnetic field cutting creating a changing magnetic field
The magnetic field cuts across the coil
Current is induced in the coil
(iii) 1. Increase speed of rotation
2. Use a stronger magnet
3. increase the number of turns in the coil
(iv) The sides of the coil move in the opposite direction each half cycle
(b) To maintain full contact each rotation
(c) X: slip rings
Y: carbon brush
(d)
444
Fig. 1.2
(e) Kinetic energy to electrical energy
2.
(a) (i) Alternating current changes direction of flow while direct current flows in one
direction all the time
(ii) as the wheel is turning, the magnet rotates along creating a changing magnetic field that
cuts across the coil thereby inducing current in the coil hence the bicycle lamp lights.
3. Figs. 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 show views from one end of the coil, when the coil is in different
positions.
Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3
(a) (i) the induced e.m.f. in the coil is at its maximum, Fig. 3.1
445
(ii) the induced e.m.f. in the coil is zero? .Fig 3.3
(b)
Fig. 3.4
[4]
THE TRANSFORMER
1.
(a)
446
(b)
(i) a.c provides a changing magnetic field which is needed to induce emf in the secondary
coil. A steady current will not provide this changing magnetic field hence no current will be
induced in the secondary coil.
(ii) The input voltage is alternating; this produces a changing magnetic field which cuts the
secondary coil thereby inducing an alternating output voltage in the secondary coil.
(c)
(i) the power output,
PS = IS VS
PS = I.5A x 12V
PS = 18W
(ii) the energy output ES
ES = PS x t
ES = 18W x 3.0s
ES = 54J
447
2.
(a)
Np = 20000; Ns = 400; Vp = 240V ; Vs = ??

Vp
/Vs = Np/Ns
Therefore Vs/Vp = Ns/Np
VS = (Ns/Np)Vp
VS = (400/20000)240V
= 4.8V
(b) The transformer is used to operate a 9.6 W lamp from the 240 V supply.
Calculate
(i) the current in the coil,
PS = 9.6W; VS = 4.8V; IS = ???
PS = VSIS ; IS = PS/ VS
= 9.6W/4.80V
IS = 2A
(ii) the current in the primary coil.
PP = PS = 9.6W; VP = 240V
PP = VPIP ; IP = PP/ VP
IP = 9.6W/240V
IP = 0.04A
3. The generators at a power station produce a voltage of 25 000 V. This voltage is stepped
up to 400 000 V by a transformer for long-distance transmission on overhead power lines.
The voltage is later stepped down to 240 V.
a) (i) To prevent energy loss through overheating of cables
448
(ii)
Np/NS = VP/VS
= 25000V/400 000V
= 1/16
(iii)
advantage: Reduces friction/resistance/ overheating/power loss
disadvantage: Thicker wires mean heavy cables hence a need for support of the cable s
making the system a bit more expensive
(b) 1. The primary reason that power is transmitted at high voltages is to increase efficiency.
As electricity is transmitted over long distances, there are inherent energy losses along the
way. High voltage transmission minimizes the amount of power lost as electricity flows from
one location to the next. How? The higher the voltage, the lower the current. The lower the
current, the lower the resistance losses in the conductors. And when resistance losses are low,
energy losses are low also.
2. There is also an economic benefit associated with high voltage transmission. The lower
current that accompanies high voltage transmission reduces resistance in the conductors as
electricity flows along the cables. This means that thin, light-weight wires can be used in
long-distance transmission. As a result, transmission towers do not need to be engineered to
support the weight of heavier wires that would be associated with a high current. These
considerations make high voltage transmission over long distances an economical solution.
(iii) Heat loss due to resistance in coils or leakage of magnetic field lines between primary
and secondary coils or heat loss due to eddy currents induced in iron core
(iv) Cooling with oil, or laminating the core
(c) Direct current is a steady current which cannot produce a changing magnetic field needed
to induce current in the secondary coil; hence no current will be induced in the secondary
coil.
449
450
ATOMIC PHYSICS: LESSON 1
1. alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
2. The Earth’s naturally occurring radiation.
3. A Geiger counter (Geiger-Muller tube) connected to a rate meter.
1. γ, β, and α
2.
1.
Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide diagnostic information about the functioning of a
person's specific organs, or to treat them. Diagnostic procedures using radioisotopes are now
routine.
Radiotherapy can be used to treat some medical conditions, especially cancer, using radiation
to weaken or destroy particular targeted cells.
Sterilization of medical equipment is also an important use of radioisotopes. Any two
451
2. Deep geological disposal is widely agreed to be the best solution for final disposal of the
452

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BOTSWANA OPEN UNIVERSITY

Inspire Tomorrow, Today

COLLEGE OF OPEN SCHOOLING

Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education

SEDIRENG MOMPATI NDOLO, Subject Specialist Programme Developer

Unit One General Physics .......................................................................................................... 8

Figure 2: Linear Relationship Between Variables .................................................................. 16

Figure 3: Proportional Variables ............................................................................................ 17

Figure 4: Directly Proportional Variables .............................................................................. 17

Figure 5: Indirectly Proportional Variables ........................................................................... 17

Figure 6: A set of Rulers with Different Accuracies ................................................................ 30

Figure 7: Accuracy of a Voltmeter Figure 8: Accuracy of an Ammeter 30

Figure 9: Parallax Error in Different Instruments .................................................................. 31

Figure 11: Using a Mirror to Minimise Parallax Error.......................................................... 32

Figure 12: Zero Error in Rulers .............................................................................................. 33

Figure 13: A Face of an Ammeter Showing Positive Zero Error ............................................ 35

Figure 14: An Ammeter with a Negative Zero Error ............................................................... 35

Figure 15: A Helical Spring .................................................................................................... 38

Figure 16: The Vernier Caliper ............................................................................................... 51

Figure 18: The Diameter of the Tube ...................................................................................... 52

A Figure 19: A Vernier Scale without a Zero Error ................................................................ 55

Figure 20: A vernier scale with a positive zero error ............................................................. 56

Figure 21: A Vernier Scale With a Negative Zero Error ......................................................... 57

Figure 22: A Micrometer Screw Gauge .................................................................................. 64

Figure 23: The scale of a Micrometer Screw Gauge ............................................................... 64

Figure 24: How to Read a Micrometer Screw Gauge ............................................................. 65

Figure 25: Micreometer Screw Gauge with a Positive Error ................................................. 66

Figure 27: A Typical Pendulum Clock .................................................................................... 73

Figure 29: The Graph of Load vs Extension ......................................................................... 118

Figure 31: The direction of Moments .................................................................................... 135

Figure 32: How to Determine the Direction of Moments ...................................................... 135

Figure 33: Demonstrating the Principle of Moments ............................................................ 137

sec 1 science - physics............................................................................................................ 186

2scanned by camScanner ....................................................................................................... 188

Figure 34: Convection in Liquids .......................................................................................... 221

Figure 35: Convection in Gases ............................................................................................ 222

Figure 36: Convection in a Hot Water System ...................................................................... 223

Figure 37: Surviving Smoke Through Convection................................................................. 223

Figure 38: How Convection Warms a Room ......................................................................... 224

Figure 39: Sea and Land Breezes........................................................................................... 225

Figure 40: Dessert Dwellers .................................................................................................. 228

Figure 43 Waves: Longitudinal Nature of Sound ................................................................. 270

Figure 44: A longitudinal Wave Moving in a Spring ............................................................ 270

Figure 47: Electromagnetic Induction................................................................................... 373

Figure 48: Direction of the Induced Current ........................................................................ 374

Figure 49: A Typical Coal Power Station ............................................................................. 380

Figure 50: A Simplified a.c. Generator ................................................................................. 381

Figure 52: A Bicycle Dynamo................................................................................................ 383

Figure 54: Mutual Induction ................................................................................................. 390

Figure 58: A Transformer ...................................................................................................... 394

Figure 59: Transformer Symbol ............................................................................................ 395

Figure 60: Step - Down & Step - Up Transformers............................................................... 395

Figure 61: The Transformer Equation .................................................................................. 396

In responding to the challenges encountered in learning, the science programme will be

In recognition of the blended approach, the programme further embraces community of

Mokhobo Victoria Laletsang is a Physics teacher at Gaborone Senior

Keamogetswe Khimbele is currently a lecturer of physics at

Koketso Tshosa is an Assessments Officer at the Botswana

The science lesson structure shall be as follows:

 Equivalent to class exercise or activity, it evaluates or assess the learner’s