BGCSE

PHYSICS
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Table of Contents
1.0. GENERAL PHYSICS ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1. LENGTH AND TIME .................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.2. MOTION .................................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.3. MASS, WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF MASS ............................................................................................................ 16
1.4. DENSITY ................................................................................................................................................................... 19
1.5. FORCES ..................................................................................................................................................................... 20
1.5.1. EFFECTS OF FORCES ON SHAPE AND SIZE ................................................................................................ 20
1.5.2. EFFECTS OF FORCES ON MOTION ................................................................................................................ 22
1.5.3. TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES ....................................................................................................................... 24
1.6. SCALARS AND VECTORS...................................................................................................................................... 28
1.7. ENERGY, WORK AND POWER ............................................................................................................................. 30
1.7.1 ENERGY ............................................................................................................................................................... 30
1.7.2. WORK.................................................................................................................................................................. 31
1.7.3. POWER ................................................................................................................................................................ 31
1.8. PRESSURE ................................................................................................................................................................ 33
2.0. THERMAL PHYSICS.................................................................................................................................................... 37
2.1. SIMPLE KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF MATTER ..................................................................................... 37
2.2. THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER .................................................................................................................. 37
2.3. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE .................................................................................................................. 38
2.4. MELTING AND BOILING ....................................................................................................................................... 41
2.5. HEAT CAPACITY ..................................................................................................................................................... 41
2.6. TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY..................................................................................................................... 42
3.0. PROPERTIES OF WAVES, INCLUDING LIGHT AND SOUND ............................................................................ 47
3.1. GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................ 47
3.2. LIGHT ........................................................................................................................................................................ 49
3.3. THE ELECTOMAGNETIC SPECTRUM ................................................................................................................. 55
3.4. SOUND ...................................................................................................................................................................... 55
4.0. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM ........................................................................................................................... 59
4.1. MAGNETISM ............................................................................................................................................................ 59
4.2. ELECTRICITY .......................................................................................................................................................... 63
4.3. PRACTICAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY .................................................................................................................... 72
4.4. ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS ............................................................................................................................ 74
4.5. INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS ......................................................................................................................... 83
5.0. ATOMIC PHYSICS ....................................................................................................................................................... 87
5.1. RADIOACTIVITY ..................................................................................................................................................... 87
6.0. IGCSE MATERIAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 87
6.1. MOMENTUM ............................................................................................................................................................ 93
6.2. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS (LOGIC GATES) ........................................................................................................... 95
6.3. REFLECTION, REFRACTION AND DIFFRACTION OF WATER WAVES ........................................................ 87
7.0. PHYSICAL QUANTITES, SYMBOLS, UNITS AND FORMULAS ......................................................................... 87

ANSWERS.................................................................................................................................................................................104
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PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

After English and Mathematics, Physics is the most important subject in the world. Physics is
necessary for students wishing to pursue careers as Physicists, Physics teachers/lecturers,
engineers, medical practioners, geologists, radiologists and astronauts. Physics can also be
very useful for financial engineers, actuarial scientists and many other science related careers.

GCSE Physics is a very interesting course which tests both the theory and calculations aspect
of every topic. That means for every topic covered there should be an equation and the theory
behind it to understand. GCSE Physics lays a very solid foundation for further studies in
Physics.

BGCSE Physics is examined in three papers; Paper 1 which is multiple choice, and Paper 3
which covers all the objectives of the syllabus and the practical part which can either be a
coursework, a practical paper or an alternative to practical. A student will sit for paper 3
(extended) in the final examination with paper 1 and practical being compulsory for all pure
Physics candidates. Paper 1 is written in 1 hour and paper 3 in 1 hour 15 minutes.

When examiners set the papers they set them in such a way that a well prepared student
should be able to finish in the allocated time or even before time elapses. So the most tried
and tested and proven rule works even in physics: Answer questions that you know first and
then tricky ones at last. This will save you from frustration and stress in the exam. Remember
you are only allocated 2 hours 15 minutes to answer 110 questions in which you have a 100%
chance of getting an A*.

To succeed in Physics, you need to do as many questions as possible and understand how
they are attempted. Do not cram questions and their answers hoping that they may come out
in the examination. Understand the concept! Anything that you do not understand, ask your
colleagues or teacher, even if it is simple, just ask. Once you get the method, we guarantee,
you will not forget it easily.

Use this book together with your notebook and your recommended textbook(s). For BGCSE
Double Science course students all things here apply to them except the examining. Double
science is also tested in three papers; Paper 1 which is multiple choice (compulsory), and
Paper 3 (extended) and Paper 4 which is an alternative to practical.

TOPICS IN THIS BOOK NOT REQUIRED FOR DOUBLE SCIENCE COURSE:

Density, Pressure, Parallelogram, Springs in Parallel and Series, Circular Motion, Efficiency
of A Machine, Levers, Thermocouple Thermometer, Gas Laws, Heat Capacity, Introductory
Electronics, and Electronic Systems.
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1.0. GENERAL PHYSICS

1.1. LENGTH AND TIME

FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Exam tips:
 Understand the fundamental physical quantities and their SI (System International) units.
 Learn to read the measurements on a Vernier calliper and micrometre screw gauge.
 Know each instrument’s precision, and errors that could be encountered.

All measurements in Physics are related to three basic physical quantities.

The diagram below shows the different measurements, their SI units and the symbols
attributed to each.

LENGTH
Metre (m)

FUNDAMENTAL
PHYSICAL
QUANTITIES

MASS
TIME
Kilogram
Second (s)
(kg)

Fig 1.1.1

MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

Units and Units Conversion

Length measurements: Time measurements:

÷10 ÷100 ÷1000
mm → cm → m → km 1 minute = 60 seconds = 6000 Centi seconds
×1000 ×100 ×10
km → m → cm → mm 1 hour = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds

Mass measurements:
×1000 ×1000
kg → g → mg
÷1000 ÷1000
mg → g → kg
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MEASURING LENGTH
Length can be measured using a rule, which has an accuracy of 0.1cm or equivalently 1mm,
but for small objects, a more precise length can be measured using the Vernier callipers
and micrometre screw gauge.

THE VERNIER CALIPER

This instrument consists of fixed jaws and sliding jaws and has two scales in it i.e. the main
scale and the Vernier scale. It measures the internal and external diameters of objects.

Fig 1.1.2

 The inside jaws measure internal diameter.

 The outside jaws measure external diameter.

How to take Vernier Calliper readings:

Step 1
Consider the last division of the main scale just before the zero mark of the Vernier scale.

Step 2
Look for a division in the Vernier scale which is in line with one of the divisions of the
main scale.

Step 3
Multiply the vernier scale reading by the precision of the instrument i.e. 0.1mm if the
instrument is calibrated in millimetres or 0.01cm when the instrument is calibrated in
centimetres.

Step 4
Add the two readings and get the final answer, remembering to include the units.

NB: When zero is coinciding then ten is also coinciding, so take zero.
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THE MICROMETRE SCREW GAUGE

This is an instrument consisting of four parts; the jaws, a shaft, a rotating drum and a fine
adjustment knob. It has two scales; principal scale and circular scale.

Fig. 1.1.3

How to take Micrometre Screw Gauge readings:

Step 1
Record the reading on the main scale (horizontal scale).

Step 2
Record the reading on the circular scale (vertical scale).

Step 3
Divide the reading from circular scale by 100 and add the answer to the reading from the
main scale. Give the answer appropriate units usually mm.
NB: During the practical usage of both the vernier caliper and micrometre screw gauge,
wipe the dirt between the jaws, because a small amount of dirt can make them to have a
false reading.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Parallax error: This is due to the wrong position of the eye when taking the reading
from an instrument. The eye should be positioned in line with the mark that is being
read.

Fig. 1.1.4
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2. Zero error: this is the error that occurs if the scale of the instrument does not begin with
zero when it is fully closed.
Positive zero error: it occurs when the zero of the vernier calliper is on the right hand side
of the main scale. After measuring an object, the reading has to be subtracted from the
readings obtained to obtain the most accurate measurement of the object.
Negative zero error: it occurs when the zero of the vernier callipers is on the left hand side
of the main scale. After measuring an object, the reading has to be added to the
readings obtained to obtain the most accurate measurement of the object.
3. Human reaction error: this occurs when starting or finishing times are recorded
before or later than the event.

ACCURACY OF LENGTH MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Accuracy: accuracy of an instrument is the smallest possible measurement we can make

using the instrument without assumptions, i.e. the smallest possible division we can read
from the scale of an instrument.

NB: An instrument with a smaller accuracy is more precise than an instrument with a
larger one.

Table 1.1 shows accuracies of the different length measuring instruments.

TYPE OF ACCURACY IN ACCURACY IN
INSTRUMENT CENTIMETRES MILLIMETRES
Rule 0.1 1
Vernier caliper 0.01 0.1
Micrometre 0.001 0.01
Table 1.1.1
MEASURING TIME
Time is the interval between two events. It’s measured in seconds (s).

Time can be measure by two instruments, namely the stopwatch and the simple pendulum. A
stopwatch displays time in minutes, seconds and centiseconds. A simple display of a
stopwatch is shown below.
15 : 48 26
The time displayed is minutes: seconds: centiseconds. A centisecond is 1/100th of a second.
In the diagram above, to express the time in seconds, convert the minutes and centiseconds to
seconds, i.e.

15 minutes = 15 × 60 = 900 seconds

26 centiseconds = 26/100 = 0.26 seconds

Total time in seconds

= 900 + 48 + 0.26
= 948.26s
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THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

Definition: This is a ball tied to a string which can swing from one point to another.

Fig 1.1.6

Factors Affecting the Period of a Pendulum

 Length of the pendulum.
 Gravitational field strength.

Factors Not Affecting the Period of a Pendulum

 Mass, shape, or size of the pendulum.
 Angular displacement (amplitude).

Oscillation: the complete to and fro motion of the bob from the extreme positions.
Period (T): this is the time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation.
NB: The period of a pendulum is accurately measured by taking the total time taken by a
number of oscillations and dividing the total time by the number of oscillations, i.e.

Total time taken

Period (T) =
Number of oscillations

Frequency (f): is the number of complete oscillations in one second. The relation between
period (T) and frequency (f) of a pendulum is given by:

1
Frequency(f) =
Period (T)
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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. A student measures the period of the pendulum using a stop watch and he records that the
time taken for 20 oscillations is 45.26 seconds.
a) Calculate the period of the pendulum. [2]
b) Calculate the frequency of the pendulum. [2]
c) Explain how the student could measure the period more accurately. [2]

2. Name the instruments in the figures below and state their readings.

a)

[3]

b)

[3]

3. State two precautions to be considered when using a micrometre screw gauge. [2]

4. A swinging pendulum will ultimately stop. State two reasons. [2]

5. Name two vertical forces that act on a pendulum. [2]

6. Convert the following to the specified units.

a) 41.2kg to milligrams. [2]

b) 3.65km to millimetre. [2]

c) 21 : 59 79 to seconds. [2]

7. Name the instrument that is used to measure;

a) The diameter of a test tube.
b) The width of a book.
c) The diameter of a wire.
[3]
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1.2. MOTION
This is the study of moving bodies.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Distance (m): it is the length between two points, e.g. 2.32m
Displacement (m): this is distance travelled in a specified direction. For example, a car
travelled 100m due west.
Speed (m/s): the distance travelled per unit time, e.g. 3.0m/s
Velocity (m/s): is the distance travelled per unit time in a specified direction, e.g. 30m/s
west.
Acceleration (m/s2): is change in velocity per unit time, 2.21m/s2

MOTION GRAPHS

VELOCITY TIME GRAPHS AND DISTANCE TIME GRAPHS

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DESCRIBING THE MOTION OF A GRAPH

EXAMPLE 1
The motion of an object below is described according to the shape of the graph.

Fig 1.2.1
EXAMPLE 2
Use the graph below to answer the following questions:

Fig 1.2.2
1. Calculate the acceleration in the first 4s.
Since this is a velocity – time graph, the gradient gives the acceleration, therefore:
Y2 - Y1 0-8
G= G= G=2 a = 2m/s2
X 2 - X1 0-4

2. Calculate the distance travelled in the 10s.

Distance travelled = Area under the graph.

A = ½bh + (l × w)
A = (½ × 4 × 8) + (6 × 8)
A = 64
D = 64m
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EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR UNIFORM ACCELERATION

v = u + at
s = ½( v+ u) × t
s = ut + ½at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
Where:

s = displacement/distance in metres (m)

u = initial velocity in metres per second (m/s)
v = final velocity in metres per second (m/s)
a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
t = time in seconds (s)

EXAMPLE
A car travelling at 5m/s is accelerated uniformly at a rate of 3m/s2 and covers a distance of
100m. It then maintains a constant velocity covering a distance of 15m. The car is finally
brought to rest covering a distance of 45m.

a) Calculate the total time taken.

ANSWER
a) First, notice that the question has three parts that should be dealt with individually.

First part of the journey:

s = 100m u = 5m/s a = 3m/s2 t=?

Consider one of the equations that have all the identified values and the missing value (in this
case t).

s = ut + ½at2
1
100 = (5)(t) + 2(3)(t)2 Simplify by multiplying throughout by 2.
200 = 10t + 3t2 Make it quadratic and solve using the quadratic formula.
3t2 + 10t – 200 = 0
t = 6.67s or t = - 10s We then consider the positive answer.

Second part of the journey:

NB: Because we are encountering a state of constant motion, we need to find the final
velocity of the first part of the journey, i.e.

v = u + at
v = 5 + (3)(6.67)
v = 25m/s
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Then since there is no acceleration we can use the formula d = s × t. Therefore;

15 = 25 × t
15
t = 25
t = 0.60s

Third part of the journey:

NB: If a body is being brought to rest, its final velocity is 0m/s.

s = 45m u = 25m/s v = 0m/s t=?

s = ½( u + v ) × t
45 = ½( 0 + 25 ) × t
90 = 25t
t = 3.60s

Therefore, the final answer would be the addition of all the different times taken for each part
of the whole journey, i.e.
6.67s + 0.60s + 3.60s = 10.87s

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

All bodies falling near the earth’s surface experience some acceleration provided there is
no air resistance.
This acceleration is known as acceleration due to gravity, g = 10m/s2.
The value of g is taken positive when objects fall freely towards the Earth’s surface and it
is taken negative when objects are projected vertically upwards.

The equations of motion still apply but with a change. We replace a with g rather in the
three with acceleration on them, i.e.
v = u + gt.
s = ut +½gt2
v2 = u2 + 2gs

MOTION OF OBJECTS FALLING IN AIR

Consider an object falling in air under the influence of the force of gravity. Air resistance
increases with the increase in the speed of an object. As air resistance increases, the
acceleration due to gravity remains constant until both magnitudes are equal. At this point,
the air resistance (frictional force) will be equal to the weight of the object and it will be
moving at constant velocity known as terminal velocity.

MOTION OF OBJECTS FALLING IN A VISCOUS FLUID

Consider a ball falling in a liquid. At the start, the downward (weight) force is greater
than the upward (viscous) force opposing its motion. As the motion increases viscous
force increases until it is equal to weight. The ball then moves with a constant velocity
called terminal velocity.
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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Use the graph below to answer the questions that follows.

a) Describe the motion of the graph from 0s to 10s. [5]

b) Calculate the acceleration of the body in the first 2s. [2]
c) Calculate the total distance travelled. [2]

2. A motorcyclist travelling at 3m/s accelerates at a rate of 5m/s2 and reaches a velocity of

50m/s. How long does he take to reach this velocity? [2]

3. A driver moving at 25m/s sees a donkey crossing the road 250m ahead of him and hits the
breaks. Given that the deceleration was 15m/s2. Find whether he hit the donkey or not. [4]

4. A stone is dropped from a helicopter at a height of 130m above the ground. Find the
velocity at which the stone will hit the ground. Take g = 10m/s2. [3]

5. A car travelling at 50m/s is retarded at a uniform rate of 3m/s2 for exactly 5.3s. It is then
accelerated at a rate of 10.5m/s2 for to a velocity of 125m/s and it was then uniformly
retarded in 16.8s.
a) Sketch a speed – time graph for the motion of the car. [3]
b) By calculation, find the total distance travelled. [4]

6. A stone on Mars is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 25m/s. The value of g in
Mars is 3.8m/s2.
a) Find the maximum height reached by the stone. [2]
b) Find the time taken of flight. [3]

7. Mr Brandiin is on top building of height 25m and throws a stone vertically upwards at a
velocity of 30m/s. The value of g = 10m/s2.
a) Define the term velocity. [1]
b) Find the height above the ground the stone would have reached. [2]
c) Find the total time taken for the stone to fly from his hands to hit the ground. [3]

8. A Ferrari starts from rest and reaches a velocity of 125m/s in 6s.

a) Calculate the acceleration of the car. [2]
b) Calculate the distance travelled by the car during the acceleration. [2]
2
c) The car is then retarded at a rate of 6m/s until it stops. Calculate the time it would
take to retard. [2]
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1.3. MASS, WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF MASS

Exam Tips:
 Show the relationship between mass, weight and centre of mass.
 Define inertia and weight and relate them to mass.

MASS:
This is the amount of matter in an object.

Instruments used to Measure Mass

 Triple beam balance.
 Lever arm balance.
 Electronic top pan balance.
INERTIA:
This is the tendency of the body to resist change in its state of motion.

Factors That Affect Inertia

 It is difficult to change velocity of a body with large mass than small mass therefore
inertia is a property of mass.
 The larger the mass of a body the greater the inertia therefore the quantity of mass can
be defined as the measure of inertia.

Mass and Weight

WEIGHT: This is the amount of gravitational pull on an object. It is measured using
a force meter. SI unit is Newton (N).

w=m×g i.e. weight = mass × gravitational field strength

On Earth, the value of g is approximately 10N/kg. On the moon, it is approximately

1.6N/kg.

EXAMPLE 1
1. Mr Moffat has a mass of 60kg. Calculate his weight.
w=m×g
Therefore
w = 60kg × 10N/kg
w = 600N

Difference between Mass and Weight

MASS WEIGHT

Amount of matter in a body Pull of gravity on a body

It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity
Does not change anywhere Changes with gravitational field strength

Table 1.3.1
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Centre of Mass
This is a point in a body where the mass of object is concentrated. It is also called centre of
gravity (denoted as “c.g”).

FINDING THE CENTRE OF MASS OF A REGULAR OBJECT

To determine the centre of mass of a regular object, draw two or three lines of symmetry
on the object, where they meet is the centre of mass, i.e.

Fig 1.3.1

FINDING THE CENTRE OF MASS OF AN IRREGULAR OBJECT

Fig 1.3.2

An irregular object is also called a plane lamina.

Method

 The lamina is freely suspended from a point (“hang from here” in diagram).
 The lamina (irregular object) is allowed to swing, when it comes to rest a straight line is
drawn from the point to the bottom this is called a plumb line.
 The procedure is repeated using the remaining points.
 Where the lines intersect (crosses) is the centre of mass.
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STABILITY
This is the ability of an object to resist toppling.
NB: A body is said to be stable if a vertical line through the centre of gravity falls within the
base of support of the body.

STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
Stable equilibrium: the body is in stable equilibrium if when slightly displaced it retains its
original position.
Neutral equilibrium: a body is in neutral equilibrium if when it is displaced, the position of
the centre of mass remains unchanged i.e. it is neither raised nor lowered.
Unstable equilibrium: a body is in unstable equilibrium if it does not return to its original
position after a slight displacement.

Fig. 1.3.3
FACTORS THAT AFFECT STABILITY
 Contact area with base – the larger the contact area with the base, the greater the stability.
 Position of centre of gravity – the lower the c.g, the greater the stability.

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Calculate the mass of a 5000N weight on Earth. [2]

2. A boy was chased by an elephant. On the way he took a sharp turn. Explain which body will
stop first. [2]
3. What is the weight of a rock of mass 230kg on Earth? g = 10N/kg. [2]
4. Explain two factors that affect stability of an object. [2]
5. Give the differences between mass and weight. [3]
6. A spacecraft travels from the Earth to Mars, where the gravitational field strength near the
surface is 3.8N/kg. The spacecraft is carrying a probe which has a mass of 100kg when
measured on Earth. [3]
a) What is the probe’s weight on Earth? [2]
b) What is the probe’s weight on Mars? [2]
c) What is the probe’s mass on Mars? [1]
7. Explain why babies mostly survive car accidents as compared to adults. [2]
8. Explain why a double decker bus should fill the lower deck before filling the upper deck. [2]
9. What is the weight of a 575g rock on Pluto? The value of g is 0.62N/kg. [2]
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1.4. DENSITY
Density: this is mass contained per unit volume. The SI unit of density is kg/m3, and it is
measured using a hydrometer. It is denoted as Greek letter rho (ρ).
m mass
ρ= i.e. density =
v volume

Mass: this is the amount of matter or substance in an object. The SI unit of mass is kg.

𝒎=𝑽 × 𝝆 i.e. mass = volume × density

Volume: this is the capacity of a substance or object. The SI unit of volume is m3.
m 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
V= i.e. 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 =
ρ 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

MEASURING THE DENSITY OF AN IRREGULAR SOLID

Using a Displacement Can

In this experiment, we require a measuring cylinder, a displacement can, an irregular object

(e.g. stone) and an electronic balance.

Methodology:
 Fill the displacement can with water until it overflows.
 Lower the solid into the can and collect the displaced water in the measuring cylinder.
Record the volume displaced as V.
 Measure the mass of the solid as m using the electronic balance.
 Obtain the density of the irregular solid by the formula:
m
ρ=
V

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Substance A has a density of 5g/cm3 and a volume of 25cm3. Substance B has a density of
8g/cm3 and a volume of 54cm3. Find the resulting density of the mixture if the two substances
are mixed. [3]
2. A stone’s density was to be calculated and the following measurements were recorded when
finding the volume and the mass.
Volume of water in measuring cylinder before inserting stone = 50.0cm3
Volume of water in measuring cylinder after inserting stone = 63.7cm3
Mass of top pan balance before placing the stone = 13.4g
Mass of top pan balance after placing the stone = 26.8g
a) Find the density of the stone. [3]
3. Jasmine decides to carry a boulder home from the beach. It is 30 centimetres on each side,
and so has a volume of 27,000 cm3. It is made of granite, which has a typical density of 2.8
g/cm3. How much will this boulder weigh?
[4]
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1.5. FORCES
Exam Tips:
 Understand Hooke’s law and the limit of proportionality.
 Understand and apply Newton’s laws of motion.

A force is a pull or a
push in a certain
direction. Instrument used: Force
meter
SI Units: Newton (N)

Fig 1.5.1

EFFECTS OF FORCES
A force can affect an object in three ways it can change the shape of an object, change its
motion and can cause a turning effect.

1.5.1. EFFECTS OF FORCES ON SHAPE AND SIZE

 This is illustrated by using a spring and a load added to the spring.
 Different loads are loaded to a spring and the scale is read from the ruler, then, the extension
of the spring is calculated
 Extension, e produced corresponding to load x = length of the spring corresponding to load x
– original length of the spring, i.e.

Extension = New spring length – Original spring length

Hooke’s Law
The law states that extension produced on a spring is directly proportional to load up to the
limit of proportionality; that is upon increasing the load, the extension also increases at same
rate and a spring retains its original shape after removing the load. The load – extension
graph is shown below:

Fig 1.5.2
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This relationship is shown by:

𝑭 = 𝒌𝒆

Where:
F = force applied in Newton (N)
k = spring’s constant as Newton per centimetre or millimetre (N/cm or N/mm)
e = extension as centimetres or millimetres (cm or mm)

The law is true as long as the spring is not permanently stretched. After this point (limit of
proportionality) the extension is no longer proportional to the load and the spring does not
obey Hooke’s Law and cannot return to its original shape.

SPRINGS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

SPRINGS IN SERIES
For springs in series, the formula above is treated as below. Where n is number of springs.

𝟏
𝑭 = 𝒏
𝒌𝒆

Fig 1.5.3

In the figure above, the springs are arranged in series. The extension produced on both
springs is equal given that they are identical, i.e. have the same spring constant.

EXAMPLE 1

The weight of mass m (in the above diagram) is 20N. The original length of each spring is
5cm and the spring constant of each is 2.5N/cm find the extension produced if the load does
not exceed the limit of proportionality.

𝟏
𝑭 = 𝒌𝒆
𝒏
20 = ½ × 2.5 × e
40 = 2.5e
e = 16cm

Therefore total extension is 16cm.

NB: The question can also be approached using F = ke for one spring and multiplying the
result by two, i.e.
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F = ke
20 = 2.5 × e
e = 8cm (One spring)
e = 8cm × 2
e = 16cm
SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
For springs is parallel, the formula above is also treated as below, where n is also the number
of springs.
F = nke

Fig 1.5.4
In Fig 1.5.4, the springs are arranged in parallel and the weight of mass m is evenly spread on
the two. The formula F = nke is used to find the extension on both strings.

EXAMPLE 1
Considering the same spring constant and the same weight of mass m we find out that:
20 = 2 × 2.5 × e
20 = 5e
e = 4cm (This is the total extension produced by the same weight of mass m on the two
springs)

1.5.2. EFFECTS OF FORCES ON MOTION

A force can;
 Accelerate a body.
 Stop a moving body.
 Retard (decelerate) a moving body.
NB: Friction force opposes motion hence in calculations it is always subtracted from
the forward force.

CIRCULAR MOTION

Motion along curved path is called circular motion. It is caused by a

force called centripetal force. It is the force that makes a body
follow a circular path and always acts towards the centre of
curvature of the circular path. Consider a car moving around a
circle, if the speed remains constant the car is in uniform circular
motion and that means the body is constantly accelerating towards
the centre of the circle thus the centripetal force is acting on the
body towards the centre of the circular path. This force acts at a
right angle to the direction of travel. Fig 1.5.5
 23

CENTRIPETAL FORCE EXAMPLES

 Car moving around a circle – centripetal force is provided by friction between tyres and
road surface.
 Stone and string – centripetal force is provided by the tension of the string.
 Rotating satellite – centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force.
 Train in circular railway – centripetal force is provided by railway tracks and train wheels.

NB: For the second example, if the string was to break at any point, the stone would travel at
tangent to the circular path, i.e.

Fig 1.5.6

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

1st Law: A body stays at rest or if moving it continues to move with uniform velocity
unless an external force makes it behave differently.

2nd Law: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it,
and it is inversely proportional to the object’s mass. The direction of acceleration is in the
direction of the net force acting on the object, i.e.

Force = mass × acceleration

𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
Where
F = force in Newton (N)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
a = acceleration in meters per second squared (m/s2)

EXAMPLE 1
An engine of a car of mass 1000kg exerts an average force of 5000N. Calculate the rate at
which the car will accelerate.

F = ma
5000 = 1000 × a
a = 5m/s2

3rd Law: Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second exerts an equal
force in the opposite direction on the first.
 24

1.5.3. TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES

A moment of a force is its turning effect. It is calculated by multiplying the force by the
perpendicular distance from that force. The pivot is also called the fulcrum, i.e.

Moment = Force × perpendicular distance

M = Fd

THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

For a body in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments must be equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments all taken about the same point.

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

1. Balance a metre rule at its centre.
2. Hang equal masses on either side of the metre rule.
3. Keep one mass e.g. m1 at a fixed point and then alter the mass m2 forward and backwards
until the ruler is horizontal and in equilibrium.
4. When the rule is finally balanced, calculate the moments of each mass’s weight and you will
find out that:
F1d1 = F2d2

THE TWO CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM

 If the object is in equilibrium the forces in one direction must equal the sum of the forces
in the other direction.
 Anticlockwise moments should be equal to clockwise moments all taken about the same
point.

LEVERS
It is straight or bent rigid bar capable of turning around a fixed point or an axis
commonly called the pivot.
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the moment of person A and B and show that seesaw body is in equilibrium.

ANSWER Fig 1.5.7

Person A = 1000N × 1m = 1000Nm (Clockwise)
Person B = 500N × 2m = 1000Nm (Anticlockwise)

Therefore, the body is in equilibrium since the sum of clockwise moment is equal to the sum
of anticlockwise moment and also the principle of moments applies.
 25

EXAMPLE 2

Fig 1.5.8

Show that the principle of moments applies for the diagram above.
Answer
10N × 2m = 20N × 1m
20Nm (Anticlockwise) = 20Nm (Clockwise)

Therefore the principle of moments applies since clockwise moments are equal to
anticlockwise moments.

EXAMPLE 3

A beam of weight 100N is pivoted at P and Q. Calculate the reactions R1 and R2 at P and
Q respectively if the beam is in equilibrium.

Fig 1.5.9
ANSWER
For the beam to be in equilibrium, sum of downward forces must equal to sum of upward
forces, i.e.
R1 + R2 = 30N + 100N = 130N

In questions involving two pivots, we can either take moments about any of the points
depending on what we’re looking for.

Taking moments about P

( 30N × 10m ) + ( 100N × 30m ) = (R2 × 70m ) Then since R1 + R2 = 130N

3300Nm = R2 × 70m R1 = 130N – 47.1N
R2 = 3300Nm/70m R1 = 82.9N
R2 = 47.1N
 26

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Calculate the value of x using the principles of moments. [2]

a) State whether the beam is in equilibrium. [1]

b) Show whether the sum of clockwise moments is equals the sum of anticlockwise
moment. [3]

2. Calculate the value of F in the diagram below. [2]

3. Find the value of dm in the diagram below. [2]

4. What equation relates mass, force and acceleration? [1]

5. Calculate the acceleration of a block of mass 500kg when a force of 1500N is applied
on it.
[2]
6. Calculate the force acting on an object of mass 650g accelerating at 25m/s2. [2]
2
7. A mass of 3kg accelerates at 2.0m/s in a straight line. Calculate the average force
needed to accelerate the mass. [2]
 27

8. Mr Brandiin arranges identical springs in parallel as shown in the diagram below and
attaches a load, xN. He finds out that the total extension is 6cm. Initially, he placed a
5N load on one of the springs which was originally 8cm and had extended to 12.5cm.

a) Write down the equation that relates the load (force), the number of springs, the spring
constant and the extension of springs in parallel. [1]
b) Use the information given above, (not using the formula you wrote) to calculate the
spring constant for one spring. [2]
c) Hence find the load xN. [3]

9. Hunnet experimented on a spring of length xcm. The diagrams below show the length
of the spring when two loads of 15N and 35N were added on it.

a) What is the value of xcm (the original length of the spring)? [4]

10. State Hooke’s Law. [1]

 28

1.6. SCALARS AND VECTORS

Exam Tips:
 Define scalar and vector quantities and give examples.
 Determine the resultant of any two vectors.
 Classify any physical quantity as a vector or a scalar.

A scalar quantity has magnitude (size) only.

A vector quantity has both magnitude (size) and direction.

Scalar Quantities Vector Quantities

• Length, area, volume, • Displacement, velocity,

speed, time, mass, force, weight,
distance, density, pressure, acceleration, momentum,
temperature, etc. etc.

Fig 1.6.1

If two forces act parallel to one another in the same direction e.g. (5N→) and
(3N→) the resultant is: (3N→) + (5N→) = (8N→)

Fig 1.6.2
If these two forces are acting the opposite directions, e.g. (←3N) and (5N→) the
resultant is: (5N→) - (←3N) = (2N→)

Fig 1.6.3

The resultant force is going to be in the direction of the greater force.

NB: A vector force is shown by an arrow and the length of the line represents the
magnitude of that force.
 29

PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF VECTORS

If two forces acting at a point are represented in size and direction by the sides of a
parallelogram drawn, the point of their resultant is represented in size and direction by
the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the point.
NB: It applies only when two or more forces are acting at a point and an angle.

To determine the resultant force:

1. Choose an appropriate scale, e.g. 1cm : 2N or 1cm : 100N, etc.

2. Use the correct dimensions, i.e. correct sizes and the angle between the forces.
3. Use a compass and rule to construct a parallelogram and measure the diagonal crossing from
the point of contact to the opposite point. This would give the resultant force.

EXAMPLE 1

Two forces of magnitudes 8N and 12N act an angle of 60° as shown below. Find the
magnitude of their resultant force.

Fig 1.6.4
ANSWER
(NB: THE BELOW DIAGRAM IS NOT TO SCALE BUT WE HAVE USED THE
SCALE 1N:1CM)

Fig 1.6.5
The length of the resultant force is seen as 17.4cm, and thus has to be converted to Newton.
At this stage, use the scale to find the corresponding scale.

1N : 1cm
x : 17.4cm
x = 17.4N

Since this is a vector quantity, direction must be included. The direction of the resultant force
is referred to one of the angles to the acting forces. In this case the direction is given as:

30° from the 12N force.

 30

1.7. ENERGY, WORK AND POWER

Exam Tips:
 Acquire knowledge on the relationship between kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy.
 Understand the concept of work, energy and power and how they are relational.

1.7.1 ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work. It is measured in Joules (J).
FORMS OF ENERGY
 Chemical Potential Energy – stored in food, fuel like coal, oil etc.
 Elastic Potential Energy – energy stored in objects that are able to change shape/size.
 Gravitational Potential Energy – energy in an object when is most above the ground.
 Heat Energy – comes from hot things when they cool down.
 Sound Energy – produced by vibrating objects.
 Electric Energy – energy carried by wires in an electric current.
 Potential Energy – this is stored energy.
 Kinetic/movement energy – energy that an object has when it is in motion.

KINETIC ENERGY
It is the energy an object has because of being in motion or moving. It is calculated by:

KE = ½ mv2
Where:
KE = kinetic energy in Joules (J)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)

EXAMPLE 1
How much kinetic energy is possessed by a body of mass 200g moving at 20m/s?

200g = 0.200kg
KE = ½ × (0.200kg) × (20m/s)2
KE = 40J

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

It is the energy a body has because of its position above the ground surface. It is calculated
by:
GPE = mgh

Where:
GPE = Gravitational Potential Energy in Joules (J)
m = mass of object in kilograms (kg)
g = gravitational field strength in Newton per kilograms (N/kg)
h = height above the surface in metres (m)
 31

EXAMPLE 2
How much GPE is possessed by an object of mass 5kg raised to a height of 4m?

GPE = mgh
GPE = 5kg × 10N/kg × 4m
GPE = 200J

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN KE AND GPE

For an object projected vertically upwards, at maximum height, its GPE is maximum since
height is maximum, then KE is 0J since the velocity is 0m/s. As it falls, at the point just
before it strikes the ground, GPE is 0J since height is 0m, therefore KE is maximum. And for
an object dropped from above, all its GPE becomes KE at the point just before it touches the
ground. Similarly, for a body projected vertically upwards, all its initial KE becomes GPE at
its maximum height. Using this relationship, we can conclude that KE and GPE are inversely
proportional and are complimentary. As the other one increases, the other one decreases.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to
another.”

1.7.2. WORK
In Physics, work is done when a force makes an object move in its direction. It is defined
as the product of force and distance moved in the direction of that force.

Work done = Force × distance

W = Fd

EXAMPLE 1
A bag of cement has mass of 50kg. Lydie loads a bag from the ground into a truck of
height 1.5m. How much work is done?

F = ma
F = 50kg × 10m/s2
F = 500N
Therefore
W = Fd
W = 500N × 1.5m
W = 750J

1.7.3. POWER
It is the rate of doing work. It is measured in Watts (W).

work done 𝑾
Power = i.e. P=
time taken 𝒕
 32

EXAMPLE 1
Mr Mmereki uses a crane to lift up a load of bricks using work of 2000J, calculate the power
generated the crane took 40s to lift the load up.

W 2000J
P= P= P = 50W
t 40s
EFFICIENCY OF A MACHINE
The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the work/power/energy output to
work/power/energy input expressed as a percentage.

work output
Efficiency = × 100%
work input

power output
Efficiency = × 100%
power input

energy output
Efficiency = × 100%
energy input

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. A car of mass of 5000kg accelerates at 1.2m/s2.

a) Calculate the time taken to reach a velocity of 30m/s. [2]
2
b) Calculate the force required to accelerate the car at 1.2m/s . [2]
c) Calculate the power exerted by the engine. [4]
2. A crane is lifting up a 300 000N load at a distance of 10m. Calculate the work done by the
crane when lifting up the load. [2]
3. An object of mass 218g has a velocity of 5.25m/s. What is its kinetic energy? [3]
4. A car engine moves the car of mass 1300kg, 40m in 6s. What is the power developed by the
engine? [2]
5. A group of student’s attempts to find out how much power each student can generate. They
work in pairs in order to find the time taken for each student to run up a flight of stairs.
a) Make a list of all the readings that would be needed. Where possible, indicate how the
accuracy of the readings could be improved. [4]
b) Using words, not symbols write down all equations that would be needed to work out the
power of a student. [3]
c) When the student has reached the finishing point and is standing at the top of the stairs,
what form of energy has increased to its maximum? [1]
6. A carcass of mass 100kg is lifted up at a constant speed thorough a height of 2.0m by force
F.
a) Calculate the force F. [3]
b) Calculate the work done on the carcass. [2]
7. A racing car is travelling along a level track at constant speed. The car has kinetic energy
due to its motion.
a) Explain the meaning of the term energy? [1]
 33

b) State the SI unit of energy. [1]

c) The car breaks as it approaches a corner, in what form of energy is its kinetic energy
changed to? [1]
d) Name the type of force that work is being done against. [1]
8. Dennis has a mass of 40kg and is playing on a trampoline. He jumps to a maximum height of
3.0m. (g = 10N/kg).
a) Calculate Dennis’ gravitational potential energy at the height of 3.0m? [2]
b) Assuming there is no energy loss; calculate his velocity as he hits the trampoline. [3]
c) He rebounces to a height less than 3.0m. Explain why this happens? [2]

1.8. PRESSURE
This is force applied per unit area on an object.

It is measured in Pascals (Pa) or N/m2.

1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Force F
Pressure = i.e. P =
Area A

The greater the area, the lesser the pressure. A nail would exert more pressure than an
elephant’s foot.

LIQUID PRESSURE
 Pressure increases with depth, the further you go down, the greater the weight of the
liquid above.
 Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions.
 Pressure is the same at all points at the same depth.
 Pressure depends on the density of the liquid. The heavier the liquid, the greater the
pressure at any given point.

Liquid pressure = density × gravitational field strength × height

P = ρgh

Where
ρ = density in kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m3)
g = gravitational field strength in Newton per kilogram (N/kg)
h = height beneath the liquid in metres (m)

The following diagrams show the relationships of pressure as described above;

Fig 1.8.1
 34

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
This is the force per unit area exerted by air molecules in the atmosphere around us.
At sea level, the atmospheric pressure (denoted as “atm”) is approximately 103,360Pa which
is rounded off to 100kPa. It can also be measured in other units such as mmHg, millibars,
cmHg, etc. It determines the direction in which wind blows. The uneven heating by the sun
on the Earth’s surface creates low pressure regions and high pressure regions which cover
very large areas.

The air molecules in the high pressure areas press hard on molecules in low pressure areas
and because of this, molecules in high pressure areas migrate to low pressure areas. Wind
blows when a high pressure area is next to a low pressure area. Low pressure areas are windy,
warmer, and cloudy while high pressure areas are associated with good weather in most
cases.

An example of an effect of atmospheric pressure is a collapsing can; removing air with

vacuum pump causes low pressure inside the can and hence will collapse because the
pressure inside becomes less than pressure outside.

USING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

THE MERCURY BAROMETER

It consists of a tube 1m long which is completely filled with mercury. It is then inverted and
open end submerged into a dish of mercury. The mercury in the tube drops, leaving a
vacuum above the mercury until the pressure at the base of the dish is equal to the air
pressure acting on the mercury in the dish.
At sea level, the height of mercury supported is equal to 760mm. Atmospheric pressure is
therefore said to be equal to 760mmHg or 76cmHg which are read as 760 millimetre of
Mercury scale and 76 centimetre of Mercury scale respectively.

Fig 1.8.2
 35

THE MANOMETER
It is used to measure fluid pressure. The pressure to be measured is fed into one side of the
tube and the other is left open to the atmosphere.
Pressure to be measured pressure = liquid pressure (ρgh) + atmospheric pressure.

Fig 1.8.3

ISOBARS
These are lines on a weather chart that connects places of similar atmospheric pressure.
They occur in steps of 4 millibars. Isobars show patterns of the weather of a particular place.
Closely packed isobars indicate high pressure difference over a short distance and suggest
that strong winds are likely to occur while widely spaced isobars suggest light winds. Winds
do not blow directly from place of high pressure to place of low pressure. The rotation of the
earth makes them blow more to less along the isobars.

Fig 1.8.4
Exercise: Describe the weather patter in the above isobar diagram;

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
 36

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. A water reservoir has an exit pipe 3m deep and a valve to control water flow. The
density of the water is 800kg/m3 and the gravitational field strength is 10m/s2. [2]

a) Calculate the pressure of the water acting on the closed valve in the exit pipe. [2]
b) The cross sectional area of the pipe is 0.5m2. Calculate the force exerted by the water on the
closed valve. [2]
c) The valve is then opened and the water, originally at the surface of the reservoir, finally flows
out of the exit pipe. State the energy transformation of this water between the surface of the
reservoir and the open end of the pipe. [2]

2. Mr Brandiin dives 50m below the surface of water. The density of water is 1000kg/m 3 and
the gravitational field strength is 10N/kg.

a) Calculate the pressure that the water exerts on him. [2]

b) The window of his rectangular helmet is 120mm wide and 60mm in length. Calculate the
force that the water exerts on the window. [2]

3. Draw a simple diagram of a mercury barometer and mark a vertical distance that would
provide a measurement of atmospheric pressure, stating this measurement. [4]

4. State and explain what happens to the level of mercury in the tube when atmospheric pressure
increases. [2]

5. How much pressure is exerted by the weight of the bucket of 300N and base area of 0.15m 2
when it is on the floor? [2]

6. A mercury barometer with the height of the mercury column at 0.460m. Given that the
density of the mercury is 1.36×104kg/m3 and g = 10N/kg calculate the atmospheric pressure
in Pa. [3]

7. A rectangular block with length 1.2m, width 0.5m and height 0.5m is filled with water. The
water exerts pressure on the base of the tank. The density of water is 1000kg/m3.

a) What is meant by pressure? [1]

b) Calculate the pressure exerted by the water on the base of the tank. [2]
c) The water is then transferred into another rectangular tank, which has a smaller base area. The
two tanks have the same volume. How will the pressure exerted by the water differ from the
first tank? [1]

8. Write down the relation between pressure, force and area. [1]

9. Define isobars and state how the distance between isobars shows pressure difference. [2]

10. A water manometer is used to measure the pressure of a gas. Water in one arm of a
manometer rises to a height of 25cm. Calculate the gas pressure in N/m2. Density of water is
1000kg/m3, g = 10N/kg and atmospheric pressure is 760mmHg. [3]
 37

2.0. THERMAL PHYSICS

Exam Tips:
 Understand applications of thermal expansion.
 Acquire basics of consequences of thermal expansion.
 Understand the difference between boiling and evaporation.
 Know methods of heat transfer and their applications.
 Differentiate between absorbers and emitters.

2.1. SIMPLE KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF MATTER

GAS LIQUID SOLID

Particles close together but Particles are tightly packed
Particles are very far apart.
not regular. in regular rows.
Forces of attraction are Forces of attraction are Forces of attraction are
very weak or negligible. strong. very strong.
Random motion of Molecules slip and slide Tiny vibrations about fixed
particles. over each other. points.

Table 2.1.1
THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
According to the kinetic theory of matter;

All matter is made up of tiny particles which are in constant random motion.

2.2. THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER

When matter is heated its particles gain kinetic energy and move further apart.
SOLIDS (the ball and ring)
When heated the metal ball expands and increase in size therefore it cannot pass through
the ring.
LIQUIDS
When liquids expand they increase in volume. As in the example below, when the flask is
heated it expands then the level of the water will slightly decrease because the flask
expands then after some time the water level will increase thus water level rises.
APPLICATIONS OF EXPANSION

THE BIMETALLIC STRIP

Two thin metal stripes can be bonded together to form a bimetallic strip. The bimetallic
strip is made of two metals; metal A (aluminium) and metal B (copper). When heated
metal A expands more than metal B this makes the bimetallic strip bend with metal A on
the outside of the curve.
 38

THE BIMETTALLIC THERMOSTATS

Thermostats are devices that are used to control temperature they are fitted to
immersion heaters, ovens, and refrigerators.
THE ELECTRIC IRON

 When the electric circuit is switched on the heater heats up and the bimetallic strip bends
away from the contact thereby breaking the circuit.
 This means there will be no electricity flowing to complete the circuit, overtime the
bimetallic strip will cool down and straighten up making contact again and electricity flow
starts again and this process is repeated the whole time of using the iron, as a result desired
temperature will be maintained.
 If more temperature is needed the control knob is turned such that it pushes the bimetallic
strip towards the contact.

CONSEQUENCES OF THERMAL EXPANSION

i. BRIDGES
Bridges are usually made of concrete and steel if the temperature rises during the day the
bridge hits up and becomes long it moves smoothly over the rollers to enable the other end
to join the road.

ii. RAILWAY LINES

Railway lines are designed such that there is a gap between them, this cater for expansion
and prevent the railway line from warbling due to expansion.

iii. POWER LINES AND TELEPHONE CABLES

Cables are designed such that they expand during the day and become tight during the
night or winter. When cables are suspended from poles they are slack to allow contraction
that would happen on cold day.

2.3. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of particles.

Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K).

INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE
 Lab thermometer
 Clinical thermometer
 Thermocouple

DESIGNING A THERMOMETER
Properties used in designing a thermometer
 The expansion of a capillary tube
 The electrical resistance of a wire
 39

 The voltage or electromotive force in a thermocouple

 The expansion of a bimetallic strip
 The pressure of constant volume
These properties must change and vary with temperature. A liquid in glass thermometer is
shown:

Fig 2.3.1
CALIBRATION OF A THERMOMETER
1. THE LOWER FIXED POINT
 This is defined as the temperature of pure melting ice given at a value of 0 °C.
 A capillary tube with a bulb is placed in a funnel containing pure ice. The thread of liquid
is allowed to fall and become steady when ice starts to melt the level at which the thread
stops is marked the lower fixed point.
2. THE UPPER FIXED POINT
 It is defined as the temperature of steam above boiling water at normal atmospheric
pressure and is given the value 100°C.
 The capillary tube is placed above boiling water when the temperature stops rising the
level is marked 100°C.
After marking the two fixed points the distance between them is divided into smaller
divisions such that each division will be equal to 1°C if the distance is 100°C the
distance between each degree is 0.1cm.

TWO TYPES OF LIQUIDS IN GLASS THERMOMETER

 Alcohol (Clinical thermometer).
 Mercury (Lab thermometer).

CLINICAL THERMOMETER
 It is used to measure body temperature
 It has a short range of 34°C – 42°C.
 The clinical thermometer has a large bulb and a narrow capillary tube this feature helps it
to be more sensitive, a sensitive thermometer is the one that can detect small change in
temperature.
 The clinical thermometer has a short range because it has a narrow bore. The narrow bore
gives the short range because the liquid fills up the stem quickly for a small change in
temperature. The lab thermometer has a long range and is used to measure temperature of
substances.
 The clinical thermometer has a constriction this does not allow the mercury to fall back
into the bulb once the temperature is recorded.
 40

ADVANTAGES OF USING MERCURY

 Being a metal it is good conductor of heat. It exerts very low vapour pressure
 It has high boiling point (357°C ) and low freezing point (–39°C ).
 It is shining visible.
 It has low specific heat capacity.
 Its expansion is uniform.

DISADVANTAGES OF MERCURY
 Very small expansion
 It freezes at – 39°C, so it cannot be used at Arctic areas and Antarctic where temperatures are
extremely low.

ADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL

 It freezing point is below –100°C hence very useful.

 Can expand even to slight change in temperature.
 Can be coloured bright and hence easily visible.

DISADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL
 It boils at 78°C hence cannot be used for high temperatures.
 It sticks to the sides of the glass.
 It has a high vapour pressure.
 It is not a good conductor of heat.
 It has high specific heat capacity.
 It is difficult to obtain 100% pure alcohol.

THERMOCOUPLE THERMOMETER
It is a device used to measure very high temperatures and rapidly changing temperatures
it consists of two wires of different materials joined together.

 It comprises of two junctions i.e. the hot and cold junctions. When one is heated the other
one is kept cool.
 The difference in temperature causes an electric current to flow which is observed in the
voltmeter
 The greater the temperature of the junction the greater the voltage.

Fig 2.3.2
 41

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLINICAL AND LAB THERMOMETER

CLINICAL LABORATORY
Has a constriction. No constriction.
Small scale. Greater scale.
Used in clinics for body Used in laboratories in
temperature. experiments.
Table 2.3.1
2.4. MELTING AND BOILING
MELTING is change of state from solid to liquid while BOILING is change of state from
liquid to gas.
FREEZING AND CONDENSATION
FREEZING is change of state from liquid to solid while CONDENSATION is change
of state from a gas to a liquid.

EVAPORATION it is the escape of more energetic molecules from the surface of the liquid.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOILING AND EVAPORATION

BOILING EVAPORATION
Occurs at a specific temperature (boiling point). Occurs at a range of temperatures.
Bubbles are formed in the liquid. No bubbles formed within the liquid.
Quick process. Slow process.
Temperature remains constant. Temperature may vary.
Takes place throughout the whole liquid. Takes place on the surface of the liquid.
Heat is supplied by an energy source. Heat is supplied from the surroundings.

2.5. HEAT CAPACITY Table 2.4.1

Heat capacity (or thermal capacity) is a measurable physical quantity equal to the ratio of
the heat absorbed to (or released) an object to the resulting temperature change

Energy absorbed/released
heat capacity = NB: The units are J/°C or J/K
Temperature change

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy needed to change the
temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1°C

Energy absorbed
specific heat capacity =
Mass × Change in temperature
 42

Q
c= NB: The units are J/(kg°C) or J/(g°C)
m × ∆T

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION (Lf)

The specific latent heat of fusion, Lf, of a substance is the amount heat energy needed to
change a mass of 1 kg the substance from a solid at its melting point into liquid at the same
temperature.

Energy absorbed
Latent heat of fusion =
Mass of substance

Q
Lf = NB: The units are J/kg or J/g
m

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORISATION (Lv)

The specific latent heat of vaporisation, Lv, of a substance is the amount heat energy needed
to change the substance from a liquid at its boiling point into vapour at the same
temperature.

Energy absorbed
Latent heat of vaporisation =
Mass of substance

Q
Lf = NB: The units are J/kg or J/g
m
EXAM TIPS:
 Since each quantity has two units, always check in the question the units given and use the
correct units in the answer to avoid loss of marks.
 You should be able to find any value given any other. This is done by making the variable of
the value required the subject of the formula.
 For questions involving current and time, study more on electricity to know the equations to
use to find the energy transferred.

2.6. TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

There are three methods of heat transfer:

 Convection
 Conduction
 Radiation

Good Conductors: All materials that can excellently transfer thermal energy. These include
metals.

Poor Conductors: All materials that cannot transfer thermal energy. They are mostly used
as insulators. These include handle of kettle, table mats, plastics, clothes etc.
 43

• It is the transfer of thermal (heat) energy from one particle to the other
through the medium of a material resulting from physical contact.
Conduction • Used for cooling utensils, and in domestic water radiators.

• It is the transfer of thermal (heat) energy by means of currents in the medium

of a material (normally gases and liquids).
• Used in domestic water heaters, electric kettles, air conditioners, and
Convection refridgerators.

• It is is the flow of thermal (heat) energy by means of electromagnetic waves.

• Used in electricity generation and in medical applications.
Radiation

EMITTERS AND ABSORBERS

Emitters are those materials that give out heat while absorbers are those materials that take
in heat.
Good emitters of heat radiation are also good absorbers of heat radiation. Generally:

Dull surfaces, i.e. dark coloured surfaces are good absorbers and emitters of heat radiation.
while
Bright (e.g. white and silver) surfaces are bad absorbers of heat radiation and are the best
reflectors of heat or light.

APPLICATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER

 The Vacuum flask

Fig 2.5.2
 44

FEATURES OF THE VACUUM FLASK

 Double glass walls: Container with a gap between the walls where air has been
removed to reduce heat loss through conduction and convection.
 Rubber stopper: Reduce heat loss through conduction and convection.
 Silver surfaces: Reduces heat loss through thermal radiation.

TEMPERATURE AND THE KINETIC THEORY

Temperature is the average kinetic energy of the particles.

THE ABSOLUTE ZERO

As temperature falls the particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly until they can
no longer move slower. At this point they have the lowest temperature and minimum amount
of thermal energy, this is called absolute zero. Absolute zero is the lowest temperature
theoretically obtainable. It is equal to zero (0 Kelvin). Zero Kelvin is the lowest reading on
the Kelvin scale, i.e. there are no negative temperatures on this scale. The relationship
between the degree Celsius and the absolute scale is;

Temperature in Kelvin = Temperature in °C + 273K.

GAS PRESSURE
This pressure exerted by gas molecules on the walls of its container.

 Reducing the volume of the container – the same number of molecules make more
collisions with the walls of the container because they travel less distance between
collisions, hence pressure will be increased.
 Increasing temperature – this can be done by heating the container. The molecules gain
more kinetic energy and travel faster and collide with the walls of the container harder,
hence pressure is increased.
 Increasing number of molecules – this increases the number of molecule collision the
container walls, hence an increase in pressure.

THE GAS LAWS

1. Effect of volume on pressure of a gas.
If temperature is kept constant, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume.

Boyle’s Law
For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely
proportional to its volume.

This means that when volume is doubled pressure is halved and vice versa.

i.e. P1V1 = P2V2

 45

2. Linking volume and temperature (at constant pressure).

Charles’ Law

For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to the
Kelvin temperature of that gas.

V1 V2
i.e. T1
= T2

3. Linking pressure and temperature (at a constant volume).

Pressure Law

For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature.
P1 P2
i.e. T
=
1 T 2

The Combined Gas Law

P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2

DEFINITION OF BOILING, MELTING AND FREEZING POINTS

1. Boiling point – this is the temperature at which a liquid substance changes into vapour.
2. Melting point – this is the temperature at which a substance changes into liquid from being a
solid.
3. Freezing point – this is the temperature at which a substance changes from being a liquid to a
solid.

BROWNIAN MOTION
It is the random molecular bombardment of particles.
OR
It he unpredictable random movement of microscopic particles in a fluid, as a result of
continuous bombardment from molecules of the surrounding medium.

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. State the kinetic theory of matter. [1]

2. State and explain three methods of heat transfer. [3]
3. Differentiate between evaporation and boiling. [4]
4. In sunny countries some houses have a solar heater on the roof. It warms up water for the
house.
a) Explain why the panel in the solar heater is black. [1]
b) Why is there a layer of insulation behind the panel. [1]
 46

c) What are that advantages of using a solar panel instead of the heater? [2]
5. Explain the applications of convection in refrigerators. [2]
6. Explain why there are some fins at the back of a refrigerator. [2]
7. Explain how the features of a vacuum flask shown below enable it to work effectively. [4]
8. Three materials are mentioned as follows a black metal surface, a white metal surface and a
silver metal surface which of the following material is best at:
 Absorbing thermal radiation ____________________________________
 Emitting thermal radiation _____________________________________
 Reflecting thermal radiation ____________________________________ [3]
9. State and explain three effects of expansion. [3]
10. Describe how a bimetallic strip is used in thermostats. [2]
11. A student wants to estimate the amount of solar (heat) energy absorbed by the water.
The student measures the temperature of water at sunrise as 25°C, and at noon as 33°C.
a) Calculate the energy needed to raise the temperature for 3000kg of water between sunrise and
noon. (The heat capacity of water is 4.2kJ/(kg°C) [2]
b) State two reasons why the sun has provided more energy than you have calculated in (a) to
warm the water. [2]
3
c) A plastic bottle is completely filled with 200cm of water at 0°C. The bottle is closed and
placed into a freezer. The density of water is 1.0g/cm3. Calculate the mass of the water. [2]
d) Calculate the heat given out by water as it turns to ice at 0°C. (the specific latent heat of
fusion of ice = 340J/g) [2]
e) Explain why the bottle may burst as the water freezes. [2]
12. Define the following terms, heat capacity, specific heat capacity, latent heat of fusion and
latent heat of vaporisation. [4]
13. How much energy is needed to heat 500g of water from 30°C to 50°C? (Specific heat
capacity of water = 4200J/kg°C). [3]
14. On a hot day, the water level in a tank drops by 0.0030m. The area of the water is 0.5m2. The
density of water is 1000kg/m3 and the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water is
2.2×106J/kg. Calculate the energy supplied to evaporate the water. [2]
15. In an experiment to find the specific latent heat of water, the following readings were taken.
M1 mass of water at 100°C, before boiling starts = 120g
M2 mass of water at 100°C, after boiling finishes = 80g
V Voltage across the heater = 12 V
l Current through the heater = 2.0A
t time that the heater was supplying energy = 3750s

a) Using the symbols above, write down the equation that must be used to find the value of the
specific latent heat, L, of water. [2]
b) Use the equation to calculate the specific latent heat of water from the readings above. [2]
c) Explain in terms of the molecules why the specific latent heat of water has a high value. [2]
 47

3.0. PROPERTIES OF WAVES, INCLUDING

LIGHT AND SOUND
3.1. GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES
Exam Tips:
 Acquire basic knowledge about wave motion.
 Know how to differentiate between longitudinal and transverse waves.
 Understand and apply the wave equation.

A wave is a vibration or an oscillation that carries energy from one point to another.

TYPES OF WAVES
 Transverse waves
 Longitudinal waves
1. Transverse Waves: a wave that carries vibrations or individual particles perpendicular
to the direction of motion of the wave. Examples include; water waves, all electromagnetic
waves (gamma, infrared, radio waves, etc), spring waves, etc.

Fig 3.1.1

2. Longitudinal Waves: It is a type of wave in which vibrations or individual particles

vibrate along or in line with the direction of motion of a wave. Examples include; seismic
waves, sound waves, spring waves, etc. i.e.

Fig 3.1.2
 48

Compression – It is a region of high pressure, where molecules are closely packed.

Rarefaction (decompression) – It is a region of low pressure where molecules are further
apart.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
The following are terms used to describe wave motion.
Amplitude (A): this is the maximum displacement of a wave from its rest position. The
unit measure for amplitude is metre (m).
Wavelength (λ): the distance between any two successive or corresponding points. The
unit of measure for wavelength is metre (m).
Period (T): It is the time taken to complete one cycle, i.e. a full wavelength. The unit measure
is second (s).
Frequency (f): the number of complete waves passing a point per second. The unit
measure for frequency is Hertz (Hz).
Wave front: it is a line or section through an advancing wave in which all the particles are
in the same place, i.e. a line joining points that are in the same place on a wave.

1 1
frequency = time taken
i.e. f = t

THE WAVE EQUATION

v= λ× f i.e. velocity = wavelength × frequency

PROPERTIES OF WAVES
REFLECTION
It is the bouncing back of a wave as it strikes a surface. Waves are reflected such that
the angle of incident is equals the angle of reflection.

Fig 3.1.3
LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane.
 49

REFRACTION
This is the change in direction of a wave as it moves from one medium to another. Waves
are refracted such that the frequency remains unchanged, speed decreases and wavelength
also decreases, so when the wavelength decreases the wave fronts closes up each other, i.e.

Fig 3.1.4

3.2. LIGHT
FEATURES OF LIGHT
 Light is a form of radiation this means that light can spread out
 Light travels in a straight line
 Light transfers energy
 Light travel the fastest in a vacuum
 Light travels as waves

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
This is the bouncing back of light when it hits a medium.

Fig 3.2.1

LAWS OF REFLECTION
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal lies on the same plane

REFLECTION ON A PLANE MIRROR

 The image is upright.
 The image is the same size as the object.
 The image is virtual.
 The image is laterally inverted.
 50

DIAGRAM SHOWING REFLECTION ON A PLANE MIRROR

Fig 3.2.2

REFRACTION

This is the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another which both have
different densities. Light can be refracted when passing from one medium to the other. For it
to be refracted it must not be perpendicular to the boundary, i.e. it must not be incident to the
boundary along the normal.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT IN A GLASS BLOCK

Fig 3.2.3

1. A ray of light is bent towards the normal when it enters an optically denser medium at an
angle (e.g. from air to glass), i.e. the angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence.

2. A ray of light is bent away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense
medium (e.g. from glass to air).

3. A ray emerging from a parallel-sided block is parallel to the ray entering, but is displayed.

4. A ray travelling along the normal is not refracted.

 51

REFRACTIVE INDEX
This is the ratio which shows the extent to which a light ray will be bent in a medium.

speed of light in vacuum

refractive index (n) =
speed of light in medium

OR
sin i
refractive index (n) =
sin r

EXAMPLE 1
Light travels at 3.0×108m/s. As it enters a glass block, its speed reduces to 2.0×108m/s. Find
the refractive index of the glass block.

speed of light in vacuum

refractive index (n) =
speed of light in medium

3.0×108 m/s
n=
2.0×108 m/s

n = 1.5
REAL (ACTUAL) DEPTH AND APPARENT DEPTH

Real Depth
Refractive Index =
Apparent Depth

Fig 3.2.4

CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Critical angle: This is the angle beyond which total internal reflection occurs.

When light passes from a denser medium to a less dense medium there is a strong
refracted ray and a weak reflected ray back into the denser medium.

At a certain angle of incidence, called the critical angle the angle of refraction is 90°.
The refracted ray disappears and the entire incident ray is reflected into the denser
medium and this is known as Total Internal Reflection.

Fig 3.2.5
 52

OTICAL FIBRES
These are thin flexible threads of transparent materials that transmit light by total internal
reflection; they are used to transmit and receive light from inaccessible places by
repeated total internal reflection.

Fig 3.2.6
IMAGES

An image is a point from which rays of light entering the eye appear to have originated.

VIRTUAL IMAGES

These are images that cannot be formed on a screen and rays of light do not actually pass
through it e.g. images formed by plane mirrors. Therefore, imaginary dots are drawn from
the image.
REAL IMAGES
These are images that can be formed on a screen because rays of light actually pass through
it e.g. image formed by pinhole camera.

NB: A real ray of light is represented by a line with an arrow in the middle.

PROPERTIES OF IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS

 The image is the same size as the actual object.
 The image is virtual (cannot be formed on a screen).
 It is laterally inverted.
 The image is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.

USES OF MIRRORS
1. Plane Mirrors
 They are used daily to view the person’s image.
 They used in designing a periscope.

2. Convex Mirrors
 Car driving mirrors – the image gives a wide field of view.

3. Concave Mirrors
 It is used as reflector in a car headlamps and flash lamps.
 It is used to make makeup and shaving mirrors-a concave mirror forms magnified images.
 53

LENSES
A lens is a transparent glass material which is able to refract light rays such that they
either converge or diverge.

TYPES OF LENSES
1. Convex Lenses
These are thickest in the middle and thin round the edge. They are also knows as
converging lenses.

Fig 3.2.7

2. Concave Lenses
These are thin in the middle and usually thickest round the edge a concave lens is a
diverging lenses.

Fig 3.2.8

RAY DIAGRAMS OF CONVEX LENSES AND APLLICATIONS

DIAGRAM (b): this kind of lens is used in cameras because the image is diminished, real
and upside down.
DIAGRAM (d): this kind of lens is used in a projector because the image is larger, real
and upside down. Another lens of the same kind is used to make the image upright.

DIAGRAM (f): this kind of lens is used in magnifying glasses; the image is not real,
larger than the object, upright and behind the object, i.e. it is a virtual image.
 54

Fig 3.2.9
 55

3.3. THE ELECTOMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

This is a family of electromagnetic waves which are a result of varying electric and magnetic
fields all with common properties but different wavelengths and frequencies.

PROPERTIES OF THE MEMBERS OF THE E.M. SPECTRUM

 They are all transverse waves.
 They travel in a vacuum at a speed of 3.0×108m/s.
 They obey refraction and reflection laws.
 They can be absorbed and emitted by matter.
 They transfer energy.
 All obey the wave equation, i.e. c = f × λ where c = 3.0×108m/s

E.M. WAVE SOURCE DETECTION PROPERTIES USES

• Photographic
• Nuclear • Very • Treatment of cancer.
film.
Gamma rays radioactive penetrating and • Sterilising medical
• GM (Geiger
atoms. dangerous. equipment and food.
Muller) tube.
• Used for radiography
• Photographic
• Very • Inspection of welds in
• X – Ray film.
X – Rays penetrating and pipes.
tubes. • Fluorescent
dangerous. • Treatment of skin
screen.
disorders.
• Gives sun tan.
• Very hot • Causes sun • Makes clothes washed
• Photographic
objects above burn. with washing powder
film.
Ultraviolet rays 500°C.
• Fluorescent • Damages and look wither.
• Mercury
Photocells. kills living cells. • Helps detect
lamp.
Forgeries.
• The sun. • Eyes.
• Refracted by • It is essential for
• Hot objects. • Photographic
Visible light glass lenses and photosynthesis.
• Laser and film.
prism. • Seeing.
lamp. • Photocells.
• Skin • Makes skin feel
• Used for heating.
• The sun and • Light warm.
Infrared • Remote sensing.
hot objects. dependent • Causes heating
• Infrared satellite.
resistor when absorbed.
• It is absorbed
• Microwave • Microwave • Microwave cooking.
Microwaves by water and fats
oven. receiver. • Communication.
in food.
• Radio • Aerials
• They induce • Radio, TV’s and
transmitters. connected to
Radio waves alternating satellite.
• Oscillating tuned circuits in
electric circuits. • Communications
electrons. TVs and radio.

Table 3.3.1
FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH PROPERTIES

Increasing wavelength.
→
Gamma X-Rays Ultraviolet rays Visible Light Infrared Microwaves Radio waves

Increasing frequency.
 56

3.4. SOUND

Sound is a form of energy that affects the sense of hearing. It is produced by vibrating
objects, e.g. loudspeaker, tuning fork, etc. The sound waves move in the form of
compression and rarefactions.

Sound is longitudinal in nature. As a longitudinal wave, there are regions of high and low
pressure called compressions and decompressions (rarefactions) respectively. Pressure is
high during a compression due to high concentration of particles in that region, and vice
versa in rarefactions.
NB: Sound requires a medium to travel through, i.e. sound cannot travel through a vacuum.
The medium of transport are in three stages solid, liquid and gas.

MEDIUM APRROX. VELOCITY (m/s)

Steel 5000m/s
Water 1500m/s
Air 330m/s

Sound waves travel fastest in solids, then liquids and least in gases. Table 3.4.1

PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES

 Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
 Sound waves need a material to travel through.
 Sound waves can travel through solids, liquids and gases.
 Sound waves are caused by vibrations.
ECHO
This is the bouncing back of sound or the reflection of a sound wave.
USES OF ECHO
 Echo sounders: these are used to measure the depth of water under a boat.
 Electronic tape measures: a surveyor can use this to measure the distance between two walls.

REVERBERATION
If the reflecting surface is nearer than 15m, the echo joins up with the original sound
which seemed to be prolonged. This is called reverberation (multiple reflections of sound).
RANGE OF AUDIBLE FREQUENCY
 Human beings; from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
 Dogs; can detect lower than 20 Hz and higher than 20 kHz.
 Bats; can detect more than 20 kHz up to 130 kHz.

ULTRASOUND
This is sound that is beyond the range of human hearing (20 Hz – 20 kHz).
USES OF ULTRASOUND
 Cleaning: this is used to clean delicate material without dismantling it.
 Echo sounding: ships use echo–sounders to measure the depth of the water beneath.
 Metal testing: some echo sounding principles are used to detect flaws in metals.
 Womb scanning: echo sounding transmitters are used to send pulses from the mother body
thus picking up pulses reflected from the baby.
 Determining cracks in water pipes which are located in between walls.
 57

SOUND POLLUTION
This is sound that is too much unpleasant in the surrounding. The loudness of sound is
measured in decibels.
SOURCES OF SOUND POLLUTION
 Train
 Traffic
 Industries
 Generators
 Bombs

REDUCING NOISE POLLUTION

 Lubricating moving parts
 Wear ear muffs
 Install silencers in cars and guns
 Separate residential from industrial areas

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

 Stress
 Irritation
 Increase heart problems
 Deafness

SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

distance d 2d
Speed = i.e s= If echo is involved; s =
time t t

PITCH, LOUDNESS AND QUALITY OF SOUND

This is how high or low a sound wave is. It is the property of sound determined by its
frequency. High pitched sound is associated with high frequency, while low sound (deep,
low notes) with low frequency.

NB: Pitch depends on frequency of a sound, i.e. the higher the frequency the higher the pitch.
while
Loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of the sound.

QUALITY OF SOUND (TIMBRE)

A sound note consists of a fundamental frequency mixed other frequencies called overtones
or harmonics. Overtones/harmonics are usually weaker than the main frequency but have
frequencies which are exact multiples of the fundamental frequency. The note of a different
instrument sounds differently, i.e. they differ in quality. This is because no instrument can
produce a pure note. There are only two instruments that are able to produce pure notes, i.e.

i. Tuning folk
ii. Signal generator
 58

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between transverse waves and longitudinal waves. [2]

2. State two examples of transverse waves. [2]
3. Give two examples of longitudinal waves. [2]
4. State two uses of ultrasound. [2]
5. The speed of sound in air is 330m/s.
a) Why do you hear sound after seeing lightning? [1]
b) If lightning strikes and you hear sound 4s after you see it, how far away was it? [3]
6. A rocket is 220m from a large cliff when it sounds its foghorn.
a) When the echo is heard on the racket, how far has the sound travelled? [3]
b) What time delay is there before the echo is heard? [2]
c) The rocket changes its distance from the cliff. When the echo time is 0.5s, how far is the
rocket from the cliff? [3]
7. A student stands 300m from a tall building and when he produced a sound the time taken to
hear the next pulse of sound was 2s. Calculate the speed of sound in air? [2]
8. State how the frequency affects the pitch and how amplitude affects loudness? [2]
9. Give three features common in all electromagnetic waves? [3]
10. Name the type of electromagnetic wave that:
a) is emitted by hot objects.
b) is visible to the eyes.
c) is used for detecting fractured bones.
d) is used for verifying invisible bank signatures.
e) can cause florescence. [5]
11. A radio station emits radio waves at a frequency of 1.0×1014Hz what is its wavelength? [2]
12. State two laws of reflection. [2]
13. State three properties of images formed by a plane mirror? [3]
14. Differentiate between reflection and refraction. [2]
15. The speed of light through a diamond is approximated to be 1.25×108m/s. Calculate the
refractive index of diamond. [2]
16. A ray enters a glass block is at an angle of 45°. Calculate the angle of refraction given that the
refractive index is 1.5.
17. State two uses of total internal reflection. [2]
18. State two uses of a concave and convex lens. [2]
 59

4.0. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

4.1. MAGNETISM
Exam Tips:
 Know the basic properties of a magnet.
 Acquire knowledge on the permanent and soft magnetic materials.
 Understand methods of magnetisation and ways of demagnetisation.

Magnetic materials: it is a piece of material that has the ability to attract certain materials
and can be made into a magnet. These materials are called ferromagnetic materials e.g.
iron, steel, cobalt, nickel and their alloys.

Non-magnetic materials: materials are not attracted by magnets and cannot be made into
magnets; these include copper, aluminium, zinc, brass, bronze, brass and non–metals.

EXAMPLE OF A MAGNET

Fig 4.1.1

PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET

Fig 4.1.2
 A magnet consists of two poles; the NORTH and SOUTH POLE.
 LIKE poles REPEL while UNLIKE poles ATTRACT.
 Magnets attract magnetic materials only e.g. iron, steel, cobalt.
 Magnetic strength is concentrated at the poles.
 Magnets attain a north – south position when suspended on a rope.
 60

INDUCED MAGNETISM
When a permanent magnet is brought near a magnetic material, the magnetic material gains
magnetism from the permanent magnet, the magnetized material then behaves like a magnet.
This process is called induced magnetism.

Fig 4.1.3

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL

In the diagram shown above the steel paper clips and iron nails can cling to the magnet
because they are being magnetized i.e. behave like a magnet. But when the magnet is
removed the chain of iron nails falls, (this shows that iron can be used as a temporary
magnet) while steel remains in the chain for a longer time (thus steel is used for making
permanent magnets).

IRON STEEL
1. Easily magnetised 1. Not easily magnetised
2. Easily demagnetised 2. Not easily demagnetised
3. Forms stronger magnets 3. Forms weaker magnets
4. Does not retain its magnetism 4. Retains its magnetism
5. Makes temporary magnets 5. Makes permanent magnets
6. Soft magnetic material 6. Hard magnetic material

MAGNETIC FIELDS Table 4.1.1

This is a region around a magnet where magnetism is detected.

Magnetic force is experienced in this region. Magnetic fields around a magnet are shown by
a pattern of lines with the following rules:

 Magnetic field lines are always running from the North Pole towards the South Pole.
 The field lines should never touch each other.

Fig 4.1.4
 61

MAGNETISATION
This is the process of making a magnet.

METHODS OF MAGNETISATION
1. Stroking.

Fig 4.1.5

A steel bar is stroked from end to end several times in the same direction with a known pole
of a permanent magnet. The end of the steel bar where the stroking ends will have an
opposite pole to the stroking end of the permanent magnet.
2. Electric method (using direct current).

Fig 4.1.6

Temporary magnets are made using the effect of electricity. A simple electromagnet
passes current through a long insulated copper wire or solenoid having iron as its core.
When the current is switched off soft iron losses its magnetism. The polarity is deduced by
used of the right hand grip rule.

DEMAGNETISATION
This is the process of destroying magnetic property of a material.
Methods of Demagnetisation
 Heating – if a magnet is heated strongly with a Bunsen burner flame the magnet will lose its
magnetism quickly.
 Hammering – if a magnet is hammered vigorously while lying in an east – west direction its
magnetism will become weaker and weaker.
 Dropping hardly, the magnet several times.
 Using alternating current – a solenoid is connected to an alternating current supply. A magnet
to be demagnetised is placed inside the solenoid parallel to the east-west direction. Following
the east – west direction slowly withdraw the magnet far away through the solenoid while the
A.C supply is still flowing. As this process is repeated, the magnet will be demagnetised.
 62

USES OF MAGNETS
 Magnetic compasses.
 Dynamos.
 Small generators and motors.
 Loud speakers.
 Refrigerators
 Voltmeters.

MAGNETIC SATURATION
When a magnetic material is magnetised electrically the magnetic strength increases with
the increase in current. But magnetization does not increase indefinitely with current. The
magnetization will ultimately reach a maximum constant value. At that point the magnetic
material is said to have attained magnetic saturation.

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

These are lines which show the direction in which the magnet force acts. Lines of force are
always from north to south. A compass can be used to draw a line of force around a magnet.

MAGNETIC SCREENING (SHIELDING)

Magnetic shielding is a process that limits the coupling of a magnetic field between two
locations. This can be done with a number of materials, including sheet metal, metal mesh or
ionized gas. The purpose is most often to prevent magnetic fields from interfering with
electrical devices.

Unlike electricity, magnetic fields cannot be blocked or insulated, which makes shielding
necessary. Therefore, magnetic field lines must terminate on the opposite pole. There is no
way to block these field lines; nature will find a path to return the magnetic field lines back to
an opposite pole. This means that even if a nonmagnetic object — for example, glass — is
placed between the poles of a horseshoe magnet, the magnetic field will not change.

Instead of attempting to stop these magnetic field lines, magnetic shielding re-routes them
around an object. This is done by surrounding the device to be shielded with a magnetic
material. Magnetic permeability describes the ability of a material to be magnetized. If the
material used has a greater permeability than the object inside, the magnetic field will tend to
flow along this material, avoiding the objects inside. Thus, the magnetic field lines are
allowed to terminate on opposite poles, but are merely redirected.

Fig 4.1.7
 63

4.2. ELECTRICITY
STATIC ELECTRICITY
Exam Tips:
 Understand static electricity.
 Acquire knowledge on methods of charging and discharging.
 Know the principles of static electricity using spheres.

Static electricity can be defined as the accumulation electric charge on an object due to
friction between two objects.

EXAMPLE OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING

When a polythene rod is rubbed with a woollen cloth the polythene pulls electrons from the
wool and becomes net negatively charged. When a Perspex rod is rubbed with a cloth the
wool pulls the electrons from the Perspex and the Perspex is left with a net positive charge.

Fig 4.2.1

THE LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS

Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

ELECTRIC CHARGE
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electromagnetic field.

Electric charge comes from batteries, generators and it can be as result of rubbing materials
together. Charge is measured in Coulombs (C).

TYPES OF CHARGES
1. Positive charge – It results when electrons are rubbed off from the outermost shell of an
atom.
2. Negative charge – It results when electrons are gained by being rubbed onto a material.
 64

ELECTRIC FIELD

It is a region or area surrounding a charged material in which an electric force is

experienced or detected. The direction of electric field lines is always from the positive
charge to the negative charge, i.e.

Fig 4.2.2

CONDUCTORS
This are materials which let electrons pass through them, metal are best conductors.
Why metals are good conductors though?
This is because each atom of a metal has at least one loosely held electron which is free to
move. When a current passes through a wire it is because the free electron(s) move from one
atom to another which is not the case with insulators.

INSULATORS
This are materials that hardly conduct at all, their atoms are tightly held together and are
not free to move.

ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
It is a redistribution of electrical charge in an object, caused by influence of nearby charges.

Example of electrostatic induction is charging a conductor as discussed below:

Fig 4.2.3
 65

a) A positively charged rod is placed near a neutral insulated conductor. This will cause the
negative charges to be attracted by the positive charges in the rod.
b) The positive side of the conductor is Earthed and electrons move from the Earth to neutralise
them.
c) While the charged rod is still placed near the conductor, the Earthing is removed to prevent
the attracted negative charges to escape to the Earth.
d) The charged rod is removed and the negative charges redistribute and the conductor is left
with a net negative charge.

THE GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

Fig 4.2.4

Presence of charge on a material can be detected by gold – leaf electroscope. It is made up

of a metal plate, with a metal rod and gold – leaf at the end of the rod.
How does it work though?
1. Place a charged rod near the plate e.g. a positively charged rod is brought closer to the
metal plate but held such that it does not touch it as seen above.

2. The gold – leaf will rise because the positively charged rod induces charge on the
electroscope by attracting the electrons up to the metal plate. Since the metal rod and gold
– leaf both are left carrying a positive charge, the gold – leaf will rise because like charges
repel.

NB: The same happens when a negatively charged rod is used.

What happens when the rod is removed?

The gold – leaf falls back down because there is redistribution of charge.

What happens when you touch the metal cap with the rod?
The gold – leaf will rise.
Why does it rise?
Electrons are transferred from the electroscope to the rod, such that the electroscope has a
large positive charge.
 66

METHODS OF DISCHARGING
1. Touching
When one touches a net positively charged object with their finger, electrons move from the
Earth, through the person’s body and into object to discharge (neutralise) the charge. Whereas
if the object has a net negative charge, the excess electrons will move from the object into the
person’s body and to the Earth.

2. Earthing
This similar to touching but instead of a finger, a cable that is connected to the Earth is used
to transfer the electrons to the Earth if the object if net negatively charged or from the Earth
into the object if it originally had a net positive charge.

LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS

A large rain cloud carries a large amount of charge; the charge comes about as a result of
rubbing between clouds and molecules as the cloud moves from one place to another.
The charge on the cloud can be so that the cloud may want to discharge and when this
discharging occurs lightning is observed. This is observed when charge from the cloud to the
earth or another cloud. To reduce the effect of the lightning tall buildings are often fitted with
lightning conductor. A lightning conductor consists of a thick copper rod with spikes on the
outside of a building connecting it to a metal plate underground.
The lightning conductor has spikes at the top this is because the spikes help to concentrate the
charge. The lightning conductor reduces the amount of charges carried by the cloud in this
way; when the cloud passes overhead and it is negatively charged at the bottom, the negative
charges are going to be repelled down from the end of the spikes to the ground and this
makes the spikes to remain with a large positive charge. The positive charge on the spikes
ionizes the air around it such that there could be a large positive electric wind above the
buildings. The electric wind is therefore attracted to the cloud because the cloud is negatively
and this neutralizes some of the negative charge in the cloud therefore reducing the charge
carried by the cloud. Even if a flash does occur it will be less violent and the conductor gives
it an easy path to the earth.

Fig 4.2.5
 67

CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE

Exam Tips:
 Acquire knowledge on current, potential difference and electrical resistance.
 Know Ohm’s law and how to apply the law.
 Understand factors that affect resistance.
 Know how to differentiate between series and parallel circuit.
 Acquire basics of calculating voltage, current and resistance in parallel and series circuits.

CURRENT
Current is the rate of flow of charge. Its SI unit is Amperes (A). It is measured using
ammeter.

Total charge Q
Current = i.e. I =
time t

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

This is the energy needed to move electrons in a circuit. It is measured in volts (V).

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

This is the amount of energy used up by a component in a circuit.

OR
In a circuit it is the work done in moving a unit charge (i.e. one coulomb) from one
point to the other. It is measured in volts (V) using voltmeter.

RESISTANCE
This is the opposition to flow of current. Electrical resistance takes energy from
electrons causing them to move slowly. Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω).

OHM’S LAW
It states that the potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the
current flowing through the conductor provided temperature and other physical quantities
are kept constant.

Fig 4.2.6
 68

Materials that obey Ohm’s law are called Ohmic conductors, and those that do not
obey Ohm’s law are called non – Ohmic conductors.

GRAPHS OF OHMIC AND NON OHMIC CONDUCTORS

The graph or plot of an Ohmic conductor is a straight line while the graph of a non –
Ohmic conductor is a curve thus the gradient of both graphs is equivalent to the
resistance.

Fig 4.2.7

FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE

1. Length of a conductor: the longer the length the greater

the resistance, and the shorter the length the lesser the
resistance.

2. Cross-sectional area: the thicker the material, the lesser

the resistance, and the thinner the material, the greater the
resistance.

3. Temperature: higher temperature, greater resistance, and

lower temperatures, lesser resistance (for metals).

4. Type of material: metals have low resistance as compared

to non - metals.
Fig 4.2.8
 69

CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

Cell Battery

A.C. supply
Diode

Ammeter

Lamp

Galvanometer
Open switch

Closed switch
Potentiometer

Voltmeter Heating
element

Resistor
Fuse

Transformer
Thermistor

Variable resistor
Light dependent
resistor

Fig 4.2.9
 70

SERIES CIRCUIT
 Current is the same at every point in a series circuit.
 The sum of potential difference in a series circuit is equal to the terminal potential difference
from the source.
 Electricity flows in only one path.

Fig 4.2.10

PARALLEL CIRCUIT
 The current from the source is the sum of the currents in separate branches of a parallel
circuit.
 The potential difference across each circuit component in a parallel circuit is the same as
potential difference across the source.
 Electricity flows in more than one path.

Fig 4.2.11

CALCULATIONS OF RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Fig 4.2.12
 71

ELECTRICAL POWER
This is the rate in which electricity is converted into other forms of energy.

Fig 4.2.13

CALCULATING COST OF ELECTRICITY

Cost = Power (kW) × Time (hr) × Cost Of One Unit (Pula)

1kW = 1000W
1unit = 1kWh

EXAMPLE 1

On a certain day, the cost of electricity was P3.75t per unit. Mr Diin switched on his Xbox 1
which drew a current of 25A from the mains plug. The resistance of the D.C. supply of the
console was 2.5Ω and he used it for 54 minutes. Calculate how much he will have to pay.

ANSWER

Firstly, calculate the power dissipated and convert it to kilowatts (kW).

P = I2R
P = 252 × 2.5
P = 1562.5W
P = 1.5625kW

Next is to convert the time taken from minutes into hours.

54
t = 60
t = 0.9hrs

Now that we have the two required variables we can use our equation to find out how much
he will pay.

Cost = Power (kW) × Time (hr) × Cost Of One Unit (P)

Cost = 1.5625 × 0.9 × 3.75
Cost = P5.2734375
Cost = P5.27 (Answers of money should be given to 2 decimal places).
 72

4.3. PRACTICAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY

For households the main supply voltage is 240V in Botswana and 230V in UK. The mains
current is an alternating current (A.C.), i.e. it flows backwards and forward.

THE THREE PIN PLUG

Fig 4.3.1
LIVE WIRE

 Its colour is brown. This is an active wire providing the path for flow of charge during
normal operation. The voltage of this goes alternatively negative and positive making the
current flow backwards and forward through the circuit. The live wire connects the appliance
directly to the power station. Electrons move at high energy in this wire.

EARTH WIRE

 Its colour is green and yellow. The earth wire connects home appliances to the ground. This
is called Earthing. It carries current away from the appliance to the earth if a fault is
developed and the metal casing becomes live.

NEUTRAL WIRE

 Its colour is blue. This completes the circuit. It is kept at zero voltage by the electric supply
company. In this wire the electrons have got less energy hence it cannot give an electric
shock if accidentally touched.

DOUBLE INSULATION

 Appliances that do not have earth wire are double insulated. This means that all the parts of
the component are completely enclosed in plastic so that any user who touches them would
not get a shock. These appliances include TV set, hairdryer etc.

FUSE

 A fuse should be included in a circuit to prevent the current from becoming too large which
will cause overheating of the cables. A fuse consists of a thin wire with low melting point,
when the current exceeds a certain limit called the rating the fuse will melt and break the
circuit. The fuse is connected to the live wire. Different appliances have different fuses so it
is important to know an appliance’s fuse rating. Fuse rating is the minimum current that the
fuse can carry without melting.
 73

THE SWITCH
 It should also be connected to the live wire. It would function well in the neutral but
then the wire in the cable would still be live while the switch is off. This would be
dangerous if the cable was accidentally cut.

SIMPLE LIGHTING IN THE HOUSE

Every circuit in the house is connected parallel to the supply so that it receives the full
voltage of 240V. Bulbs in the house are connected in parallel so that they can be
switched on and off independently.

THE RING MAIN CIRCUIT

Fig 4.3.2

ADVANTAGES
1. In cases of a short circuit one particular appliance is disconnected from the electric
circuit without affecting other circuit since every appliance has its own fuse.

2. As a single ring fits the whole house the length of wiring is considerably small
so installation charges are reduced.

3. All sockets in the ring main are connected in parallel so the full mains voltage is
supplied to every appliance connected.

DIAGNOSING STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED WHEN THERE IS

ELECTRICAL FAULT IN AN APPLIANCE
i. Switch off the power supply and remove the appliance from the socket
ii. Use plugs that have a rubber or plastic case
iii. Do not overload the sockets by using too many adapters
iv. Do not allow appliances cables come in contact with water
v. Do not connect appliances that use large amount of current in a lighting circuit
 74

4.4. ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

Exam Tips:
 Know the applications and uses of electromagnets.

Temporary magnets are made using magnetic effects of electricity; this is known as
electro magnetisation.

ELECTROMAGNETS
It is only a magnet when current is flowing through a solenoid. When the current is
switched off, the magnetism of the magnet cease to be. Iron is used to make
electromagnets.
The strength of electromagnets depends on;

 The number of turns/coils in the solenoid.

 The magnitude of current passing through the solenoid coil.

USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS
 Electric bells
 Telephone earpiece
 Relay switches
 Picking up scrap magnetic material
 In magnetic separators
 In circuit breakers
 Electric bell

THE ELECTRIC BELL

Fig 4.4.1
HOW IT WORKS
1. When switch S is closed, the soft iron core becomes magnetised.
2. The magnetised core attracts the soft iron armature.
3. The hammer hits the gong and the electrical circuit is broken at the contacts.
4. The soft iron core then demagnetises and the armature is pulled back to its original
position.
5. The electrical contact is remade and the bell rings again. This is known as the make – and
– break circuit and it keeps on going until the current supply is switched off.
 75

THE MAGNETIC RELAY

Fig 4.4.2

The magnetic relay also uses the same effect as the soft iron armature. In this case, the
first circuit is used to trigger another one which requires a larger current, e.g. starting a
car.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Exam Tips:
 Understand the principle of AC generators and motors.
 Acquire knowledge on ways of increasing EMF on AC generators.
 Understand and apply Lenz’s law.
Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force across a conductor
exposed to time varying magnetic fields.

OR
It is the production of an electromotive force by the relative motion of a magnet and a
coil.
i.e. whenever a conductor is moved in such a way that it disturbs the magnetic lines and
an EMF is induced, e.g.
The voltage is produced when a magnet is moved into the coil of wire. The process is

Fig 4.4.3

called induction. The direction is induced voltage is reversed when the magnet is moved
out of the coil again. It can also be reversed if the pole of a magnet is moved into the
coil.
 76

WAYS OF INCREASING THE INDUCED EMF

 Using a stronger magnet
 Moving the magnet faster
 Increasing the number of turns of the coil

THE A.C. GENERATOR

This is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

It consists of a coil mounted on an axel between the poles of a magnet. The end of a
coil is fixed to the two copper slip rings, connecting them to the external circuit.
When the coil is rotated it causes an alternating current to flow through the circuit.
The mains electricity is produced by the generators.

Fig 4.4.4
WAYS OF INCREASING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE INDUCED
EMF
 Increasing the number of turns on the coil.
 Increasing the area of the coil.
 Using a stronger magnet.
 Rotating the coil faster.

LENZ’S LAW
An induced current always flows in a direction such that it opposes the change which
produced it.

Fig 4.4.5
 77

TRANSFORMERS
It is a device that can be used to increase or decrease A.C. voltage.

A simple transformer is shown in the diagram below:

Fig 4.4.6
HOW A TRANSFORMER WORKS
When an alternating current flows through the primary (input coil), it sets up an
alternating magnetic field in the core and therefore, in the secondary (output) coil.
This changing magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the output coil. This
phenomenon is known as mutual induction.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

STEP UP TRANSFORMER

Fig 4.4.7
 Has more turns in secondary coil (output) than in primary coil (input).
 Has more voltage in secondary coil than in primary coil.

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

Fig 4.4.8

 Has more coils in primary (input) than in secondary (output).

 Has more voltage in primary coil than in secondary coil.
 78

THE TRANSFORMER EQUATION

Output voltage Turns on output coil Current in input coil

= =
Input voltage Turns on input coil Current in output coil

Vs Ns Ip
= =
Vp Np Is

POWER THROUGH A TRANSFORMER

Input Voltage × Input Current = Output Voltage × Output Current

VpIp = VsIs
If a transformer is 100% efficient, then input power must be equal to the output power, i.e.
the equation above. The efficiency of a real transformer is always less than 100%.
output power Vs Is
Efficiency = × 100% i.e. Efficiency = × 100%
input power Vp Ip

Vs Is
If a transformer is only 90% efficient, then the ratio = 0.9
Vp Ip

The efficiency is not 100% because:

1. Energy is lost in the form heat in the primary and secondary coils, and in the soft iron
core.
2. There is leakage of magnetic field between the primary and secondary coils.
To increase the efficiency of a transformer;
1. Use low resistant (thicker) copper wire for making coils so that the heating effect is
reduced.
2. Primary and secondary coils are wound on the same part of the soft iron core to reduce
leakage of magnetic flux (magnetic field).

POWER TRANSMISSION
A transformer is a useful electrical device that is essential for:
 Electrical power transmission from power station to houses and industries (users).
 Regulating voltages for proper operation of electrical appliances.

HOW ENERGY IS LOST IN POWER TRANSMISSION

 Electrical energy generated in a power station is transmitted through long cables.

 Due to resistance in the cables some energy is lost in the form of heat.
 To reduce power loss due to resistance, the output A.C. voltage from the generator
in the power station is stepped up to a very high voltage (e.g. 240kV) by a step up
transformer.
 The current in the cables is reduced and this reduces power loss.
 The high voltage is then stepped down to 240V by a series of step – down transformers
so that it is safe for using in households.
 79

THE NATIONAL GRID

CONCLUSION Fig 4.4.9

Advantage of using A.C.:

 It can be stepped up and down easily by a transformer. This is not possible with D.C.
Advantage of a high voltage:
 Using high voltage transmission reduces power loss in the transmission cables.
The power loss in the cables can be calculated by using;
Power = (Current) 2 × (Resistance)
P = I2R

SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FORMULAS

 80

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (MAGNETISM)

1. State three properties of a magnet. [3]
2. List the materials are used for making temporary magnets and permanent magnets. [2]
3. Differentiate between hard and soft magnetic materials. [2]
4. Define demagnetisation and state three methods of demagnetisation. [4]
5. Draw a magnet showing magnetic fields of a magnet. [3]
6. State two methods of magnetisations. [2]
7. Explain the method of magnetisations below. [3]

8. Describe how the electric bells works. [4]

9. Explain what happens to the nail when it is removed from the coil. [2]

10. State three uses of electromagnets. [3]

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
 81

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (ELECTRICITY)

1. Define static electricity and state two types of electrical charges. [3]
2. Differentiate between conductors and insulators. [2]
3. Explain one method of detecting electrical charges. [3]
4. Define the term electric field and use the diagram below to explain this term. [3]

5. Describe with a detailed drawing, how to positively charge a sphere. [5]

6. Explain the following electrical hazards:

i. Damaged insulation.
ii. Overheated cables.
iii. Damp conditions. [6]

7. Calculate the total resistance of the following resistors. [6]

a)

b)

c)
 82

d) Calculate the current through the resistors in c). [2]

e) Calculate the voltage through the 5Ω and the 15kΩ resistors.[2]
f) What is the voltage through the 15Ω resistor? [1]

8. a) Calculate the total resistance of the circuit below. [2]

b) Calculate the total current. [3]

c) Calculate the current through the one 12kΩ resistor. [2]

9. State the equation linking power voltage and current. [1]

10. Name the circuit symbols shown in the diagram below. [4]

11. If an electrical heater takes a current of 500A connected to a 240V supply what is its power?
[2]

12. If a light bulb has a power of 60W when connected to a 240V supply. What is the current
through it? [2]

13. a) If energy cost P0.15 per unit calculate the cost of using a 4kW electric fire for 6hrs. [2]
b) A 120W hair dryer for 30 minutes. [2]

14. Label and state the function of different parts of the 3 pin plug shown below. [5]
 83

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (ELECTROMAGNETIC

EFFECTS)
1. The diagram shows the effect of electromagnetic induction.

a) Explain what happens to the pointer when the magnet is moved towards the coil. [1]
b) What happens when the magnet is reversed? [1]
c) State three ways of increasing induced EMF. [3]
2. Differentiate between a step up and a step down transformer. [2]
3. A coil with 100 turns is to be used as a primary coil of a step up transformer for running a
12V radio on 240V supply. How many turns of a wire should a secondary coil have? [3]
4. Explain why voltage transmitted in pylons is very high. [2]

5. State Lenz’s law and draw a diagram below demonstrating this law.

[4]
6.

a) What happens when the switch x is closed? [1]

b) The 100% efficient transformer has 200 turns in the primary coil and a voltage of 250V is
supplied. Calculate the output voltage if the secondary coil has 800 turns. [2]
 84

4.5. INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS

THERMIONIC EMISSION
This is the process by which free electrons escape from the surface of a metal when external
heat energy is supplied.

This is achieved by using an evacuated glass tube with a cathode filament and anode plate.
When the cathode is heated a beam of electrons escapes at high speed from the filament
which will move across the gap towards the electrically charged anode. Therefore a current
flows.

EFFECT OF ELECTRIC FIELD ON THE CATHODE

If opposite charges are evenly spread through the metal plates of the anode, a uniform
electric field is created between the plates at a right angle to the field and electrons are
attracted to the positively charged plate following a parabolic (curved) path.

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT
Conventional current moves from positive to the negative terminal. However electrons flow
from the negative to the positive terminal.

THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

It is an evacuated tube with three main parts, the electron gun, the deflecting system and
the fluorescent screen.

Fig 4.5.1

1. The electron gun

The heater heats up the cathode from which electrons escape. The grid controls the number of
electrons passing and hence the brightness. The anodes are at high positive voltages and
accelerate and focuses electrons beam into a narrow beam.
2. The deflecting system
The Y – plates are horizontal but create a vertical electric field which deflects the beam of
electrons vertically.
The X – plates are vertical and deflect the beam horizontally. This circuit also includes a time
base circuit, which causes the spot to move across the screen with a steady speed determined
by time base settings.
3. The fluorescent screen
Its function is to display the waveform.
 85

ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

1. The Potentiometer
It is a three terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. A
potentiometer is a variable potential divider. A variable resistor with 3 terminals is used and a
slide contact is connected to the centre. It can also be made by a chain of resistors in series.

Fig 4.5.2
2. The Thermistor (Temperature Sensitive Resistor)
It is a component whose resistance decreases as its temperature increases.

Fig 4.5.3
3. The Capacitor
A capacitor stores electric charge in the form of electrons. It consists of two parallel plates
separated by an insulating material. Capacitors can be used to block D.C, while allowing A.C
to pass. They can also be used for time – delay circuits, as it takes time for it to charge up and
to lose its charge.

Fig 4.5.4

4. The Reed switch

It consists of a small coil wound around a glass tube containing two ‘reeds’ made of magnetic
material. When current flows through the coil, the reeds become magnetised and attract each
other. This completes the circuit. The reeds separate when current in the coil is switched off.

Fig 4.5.5
 86

INPUT TRANSDUCERS – These are components which enable a circuit to respond to a

change in its environment.
1. The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
The resistance of the LDR decreases when the intensity of the light incident on it
increases i.e. it has high resistance in darkness and low resistance in light. When more
light is incident on the LDR, its resistance decreases and therefore the current increases.

Fig 4.5.6

2. Diodes
A diode allows current to pass through it in one direction only. They have very low
resistance in one direction and very high in the other. The diode conducts current when the
anode goes to the positive terminal of the voltage supply and the cathode to the negative
terminal. It is then forward biased and conventional current passes in the direction of the
arrow on its symbol. If the connections are the other way round, it does not conduct and it
is said to be reversed biased. Diode can be used to change A.C. into D.C, this is called
rectification.

Fig 4.5.7
3. The Transistor
It is a device used to amplify small current. It is made of three layers of semiconductors
material. These are the base, collector and emitter.

Fig 4.5.8

A small current in the base causes a large current in the collector, if there is no current the
base, no current will flow in the collector.
 87

5.0. ATOMIC PHYSICS

5.1. RADIOACTIVITY
Exam Tips:
 Understand three particles emitted by radiation and properties of each particle
 Know methods of detecting radiation
 Acquire knowledge on how the G.M. Tube works and background radiation
 Know the effects and dangers of radiation

Radioactivity is the process whereby an unstable nucleus disintegrates spontaneously by

emission of particles in order to become a stable.
Nuclear Radiation – these are tiny particles and waves that break up from an atom with
unstable nuclei.
Radioactive Material – these are materials which emit nuclear radiation.
Radioactive Decay – this is the spontaneous disintegration (breakdown) of an atomic nucleus
resulting in the release of energy.

IONISING RADIATION
Nuclear radiation can remove electrons from atoms in its path, so it has an ionizing effect.
Other forms of ionizing radiation include ultraviolet and X-rays. If a gas becomes ionized, it
will conduct an electric current. In living things, ionization destroys cells.

TYPES OF RADIATION
Alpha radiation (α) – helium nucleus, has a charge of +2, high mass compared with beta,
strong ionizing effect, it is not very penetrating, stopped by paper. Deflected by both
magnetic and electric fields. Travel at high speed.

Beta radiation (β) – fast moving electron, has a charge of -1, very low mass, weak ionizing
effect, penetrating but stopped by a few mm of aluminium. Deflected by magnetic and electric
field.

Gamma radiation (γ) – electromagnetic wave, no charge, mass is negligible, speed of light.
Very weak ionizing effect, very penetrating, never completely stopped. Not deflected by
magnetic or electric field.

SOURCES OF PARTICLES
 Cobalt – 60: Gamma rays.
 Polonium – 210: Alpha particles.
 Carbon – 14: Beta particles (It is found in air, plants and animals)
 Uranium – 238 and Uranium – 235: Beta particles (Both are found in rocks)

METHODS DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY

 Geiger Müller (G.M.) tube.
 Photography.
 The cloud chamber.
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THE GEIGER MÜLLER TUBE

This can be used to detect alpha, beta and gamma radiation. The ionising effect is used to
detect radiation, e.g. when Radium enters a G.M. tube through the thin end window made of
mica it penetrates and creates Argon ions and electrons. These are accelerated towards the
electrodes and cause more ionising by colliding with other Argon atoms. On reaching the
electrodes the ions produce a current which is amplified and fed either to a scale or rate
meter (counting circuit). The rate meter will give a range of values, e.g. 50 counts per
seconds.

Fig 5.1.1
PROPERTIES OF THE THREE EMMISIONS

TYPE OF RADIATION ALPHA (α) BETA (β) GAMMA (γ)

Each particle
Each particle is an Electromagnetic
Nature. contains the Helium
electron waves
atom nucleus.
Relative charge. Positive charge (+ve) Negative charge (–ve) Neutral (0)

Ionizing effect. Very strong. Weak. Very weak.

Not very penetrating Penetrating but
Most penetrating.
stopped by a thick stopped by a few
Penetrating effect. Only completely
sheet of paper, or millimetres of
stopped by lead
skin. aluminium
Deflected by Deflected by Not deflected by
Effects of magnetic and
magnetic and magnetic and magnetic or
electrical fields.
electrical fields. electrical fields. electrical fields.
Table 5.1.1
DANGERS OF IONIZING RADIATION
Nuclear radiation can damage or destroy living cells and stop organs in the body from
working properly. It can cause cancer and abnormal growth. Radioactive gas and dust are
dangerous because they can be taken in with air, food and drinks.
Alpha radiation is the most dangerous because it is most highly ionizing.
Beta and gamma rays are potentially the most dangerous because they can penetrate to
internal organs. Ionizing radiation also causes radiation burn and gene mutation.
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BACKGROUND RADIATION
This is the small amount of radiation around us because of radioactive materials in the
environment which is detected when no radioactive source is present.
SOURCES OF BACKGROUND RADIATION
 Soil
 Rocks
 Air
 Radon – 222

USES OF RADIOACTIVITY
 Tracers: checking the functions of the body, detecting leaks in the underground pipes by
adding a tracer to the fluid in the pipe.

 Detecting cracks: they can be used to detect cracks in metals.

 Thickness monitoring: Beta particles are used to monitor thickness during manufacturing of
papers.

 Carbon dating: Carbon – 14 is used by scientists to discover remains of dead plants and
animals and estimate how long ago they lived.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
1. Alpha Decay (α – decay)
This is a radioactive process in which a particle with two neutrons and two protons is ejected
from the nucleus of a radioactive atom. The particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium
atom, e.g.
226
88𝑅𝑎 → 222
86𝑅𝑎 + 4
2𝛼 (the Helium atom nucleus)

2. Beta Decay (β – decay)

This is a type of radioactive decay in which a neutron is halved and transformed into a proton
and an electron, inside an atomic nucleus, resulting in the emission of this electron as the beta
particle. The radioactive isotope then changes into another isotope as the atomic number has
changed. This process allows the atom to move closer to the optimal ratio of protons and
neutrons, e.g.
131
53𝐼 → 131
54𝑋𝑒 + 0
−1𝛽 (an electron)

NB: In both emissions above, the top numbers balance on both sides, so always check if the
numbers on the left is the sum of the numbers on the right for both nucleon number and
atomic number.

3. Gamma Decay (γ – decay)

Gamma emission by itself causes no change in mass number or atomic number, rather, only
the gamma radiation is emitted alongside with release of energy, i.e.
60 60 0
27𝐶𝑜 → 27𝐶𝑜 + 0𝛾
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RATE OF DECAY AND HALF LIFE

The half – life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei present in any
given sample to decay.
OR
The half – life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for the activity of any given sample
to fall to half its original value.

The graph below shows the decay curve of a sample of Strontium – 90. It is plotted as
activity (Bq) against time in years.

Fig 5.1.2
ACTIVITY AND HALF LIFE
In a radioactive sample, the average number of disintegrations per second is called activity.
The SI unit is Becquerel (Bq). An activity of 100Bq means 100 nuclei are disintegrating per
second.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclear Reaction – this is a process in which two nuclei or nuclear particles collide to
produce different products than the initial particles.
Nuclear Fusion – this is a nuclear reaction in which atomic nuclei of low atomic number fuse
to form a heavier nucleus accompanied by the release of energy.

Nuclear Fission – this a nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits spontaneously or on
impact with another particle, with the release of energy.

ENERGY AND MASS

The existence of antimatter came as a surprise to physicists. This strange idea, however,
reveals a much more fundamental idea about our universe: if particles of matter and
antimatter can meet and annihilate producing energy, then matter itself can be changed into
energy and vice versa. Some scientists like to think of matter as being a 'frozen' form of
energy. Under the correct conditions this energy can be recovered by 'unfreezing' the energy.

Einstein's famous equation E = mc2 summarises this idea. To find out how much energy is
produced when a certain mass is changed to energy ('unfrozen') simply multiply the mass by
the speed of light squared (c2). As the speed of light is very large, a tremendous amount of
energy is released when a very small amount of mass is released.
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For example: if 1kg of mass is changed into energy, then 9×1016J of energy is produced
(that's about enough to satisfy the energy needs of the UK for a whole year!). As energy can
be changed into mass and vice versa, we need to modify the familiar idea of the conservation
of energy. We now simply have the conservation of mass/energy.

When a particle and its corresponding antiparticle meet they annihilate one another perfectly
illustrating the idea of mass/energy conservation. The combined mass is converted into pure
energy in the form of photons.

CHAIN REACTIONS

Fig 5.1.3

A heavy nucleus undergoing fission splits into two smaller nuclei and 2 or 3 neutrons with the
release of energy. The neutrons released in the fission can go on to produce fission in three
other Uranium – 235 nuclei. These Uranium nuclei split to produce further neutrons which in
turn trigger fission in further Uranium – 235 nuclei and so on. This is referred to as a chain
reaction.

Chain reactions are made use of in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs. In an atomic bomb
Uranium is used above a critical size to get an uncontrolled chain reaction by ensuring all the
available fissile material undergoes fission in the minimum time possible. In nuclear reactors
the concentration of Uranium – 235 is much less and the chain reaction is controlled in order
to reduce it and more importantly stop it if required.

SUMMARY OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY EQUATIONS

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Define radioactivity. [2]

2. Give two medical uses of radioactivity. [2]
3. Which form of radiation is not affected by magnetic fields and electrical fields? [1]
4. State two properties of alpha, beta and gamma. [6]
5. State two side effects of radioactivity. [2]
6. Define background radiation and state two sources of background radiation. [3]
7. Describe one method of detecting radiation.
8. Differentiate between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission reactions. [2]
9. State whether the following nuclear reactions are possible or not possible and explain why
a) 𝐴𝑧𝑋 → 𝐴𝑍𝑌 + 00𝛾
b) 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴−4 4
𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒 [2]
10. Explain why some substances are radioactive while some are not. [2]
a) Explain what you understand by half-life of a radioactive isotope. [2]
11. Technetium-99m is a radioactive material with a half-life of 6hr. it is used to study blood flow
around the body. A sample of Technetium-99m has an activity of 96 counts per minute when
injected into the patient’s blood stream.
a) Estimate the activity after 12hrs. [2]
b) How long will it take for the radioactivity from the injection to become undetectable? [1]
c) Technetium-99m is a gamma (γ) emitter and does not produce alpha (α) or beta (β) radiations.
Explain why it is safe to inject Technetium-99m into the body.
d) The radioactive salt (sodium chloride) is used in medicine. The radioactive sodium (Na) in
the salt decays, according to the equation shown below to form magnesium (Mg).

24
11𝑁𝑎 → 24
12𝑁𝑎 + 𝑿 + 00𝛾

i) Name and write the formula of particle X. [1]

12. A radioactive source has half-life of 5 hours.
a) What is meant by half-life of 5 hours? [1]
b) The original count rate of the source is Rx. The count rate drops to ½Rx after 5hrs. Complete
the table to show how the count rate changes with time.

Time (hrs) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Count rate (R) Rx ½Rx

c) Another radioactive source has an initial count rate of 2000 count per minute.
12hrs later the count rate drops to 250 counts per minute. What is the half-life of
the source? [3]
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6.0 IGCSE MATERIAL

6.1 MOMENTUM

The momentum of a body is the measure of quantity of motion of the moving body. This is
also well known as the tendency of the body to keep moving in the same direction. The
following equation defines momentum of any body with mass m and moving with velocity v
as;

p = mv

Here, p is the momentum, m is the mass and v is the velocity. The principle of conservation
of momentum states that; “In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to
the total momentum after the event.” Examples of such events can be collisions or explosions.
Note that here, a closed system refers to a system in which no external force acts on the
objects involved in the event.

COLLISIONS AND EXPLOSIONS

Collisions can be classified as follows;

1. Elastic collisions: these are collisions in which the colliding objects do not stick
together. The momentum and the kinetic energy of such a collision are conserved, i.e.
pinitial = pfinal and KEinitial = KEfinal. When dealing with two objects, the equations are
as follows;

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2

½𝑚1 𝑢1 2 + ½𝑚2 𝑢2 2 = ½𝑚1 𝑣1 2 + ½𝑚2 𝑣2 2

where 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the masses of the objects, 𝑢1 and 𝑢2 are the initial velocities of
the objects and 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are the final velocities of the objects. This is illustrated
below;

Fig 6.1.1

2. Inelastic collisions: these are collisions in which the objects that collide will end up
sticking together and moving with the same velocity. The momentum of the collision
is conserved while the kinetic energy is not conserved. Thus, the equation is as
follows;

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓
 94

where 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the masses of the objects, 𝑢1 and 𝑢2 are the initial velocities of the
objects and 𝑣𝑓 is the final velocity of the two objects after colliding. This is illustrated in Fig
6.1.2;

Fig 6.1.2

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

Impulse, (Imp) is defined as the product of average force and time of contact during a
collision. Or simply, we could define the impulse as a “change in momentum”. That is;

𝐼𝑚𝑝 = 𝐹 × 𝑡

Using the equations of motion, we have acceleration as a change in velocity per unit time as
follows;

Δ𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑢
𝑎= =
𝑡 𝑡

Using Newton’s second law of motion we have that;

Δ𝑣 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 =
𝑡 𝑡

Rearranging gives;

𝐹 × 𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)

Thus, the units of impulse are N ∙ s or equivalently kg ∙ m ∙ s −1.

For example, a squash ball of mass 25g is moving from left to right at 3.2 ms -1. It is hit by a
squash racquet which applies a force for 4 milliseconds, so that the ball leaves the racquet at
8.4 ms-1 moving from right to left. Impulse-momentum can be used to calculate the average
force on the ball;
 95

We can rearrange the equation to become;

𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝐹=
𝑡

0.025𝑘𝑔(8.4𝑚𝑠 −1 − 3.4𝑚𝑠 −1 )
∴𝐹= = 32.5𝑁
4.00 × 10−3 𝑠

Thus, the average force on the squash ball given by the squash racquet is 32.5N.

6.2 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

In digital electronics, the term “analogue” refers to the use of a whole range of continuous
variations to transmit a signal. On the contrary, “digital” signals use only two states, on (1,
high) and off (0, low). With on and off signals, logic gates can be used to manipulate these
states. Logic gates are processors (i.e. they manipulate the signals) that are circuits containing
transistors and other digital electronic components. Here are the basic logic gates and their
truth tables;

Fig 6.2.1
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DESCRIPTION AND EXAMPLES OF THE LOGIC GATES

1. AND Gates; an AND gate will give a high output (1) only if all of the inputs are high. For
example, in a simple lighting circuit with two switches in series. The lamp will light only
if both switches are pressed;

Fig 6.2.2

2. OR Gates; An OR gate will give a high output (1) if any of the inputs is high. For
example, in a simple lighting circuit with two switches in parallel the lamp will light if
either switch is pressed;

Fig 6.2.3

3. NOT Gates; A NOT gate is slightly different because it has only one input. It gives a
high output (1) if the input is low (0). An example of such operation is a simple lighting
circuit with a push-to-break switch, i.e. if the switch is pressed then the lamp will turn off.

Fig 6.2.4

NOT gates are often used in emergency-stop buttons on machine tools;

Exam Tip; you must be able to deduce the truth tables for the discussed logic gates above.
Consider the example;
 97

6.3 REFLECTION, REFRACTION AND DIFFRACTION OF WATER WAVES

1. REFLECTION: If a linear object attached to an oscillator bobs back and forth within the
water, it becomes a source of straight waves. These straight waves have alternating crests and
troughs. These waves will travel through the water until they encounter an obstacle - such as
the wall of the tank or an object placed within the water.

Fig 6.3.1

The diagram above depicts a series of straight waves approaching a long barrier extending at
an angle across the tank of water. The direction that these wavefronts (straight-line crests) are
traveling through the water is represented by the arrow. The arrow is called a ray and is
drawn perpendicular to the wavefronts. Upon reaching the barrier placed within the water,
these waves bounce off the water and head in a different direction;

Fig 6.3.2

The diagram above shows the reflected wavefronts and the reflected ray. Regardless of the
angle at which the wavefronts approach the barrier, one general law of reflection holds true:
the waves will always reflect in such a way that the angle at which they approach the barrier
equals the angle at which they reflect off the barrier. This is known as the law of reflection.

2. REFRACTION: Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they

pass from one medium to another. Refraction, or the bending of the path of the waves, is
accompanied by a change in speed and wavelength of the waves. The speed of the wave is
dependent upon the properties of the medium through which the waves travel. So if the
medium (and its properties) is changed, the speed of the waves is changed. The most
significant property of water that would affect the speed of waves traveling on its surface is
the depth of the water;

Fig 6.3.3
 98

Water waves travel fastest when the medium is the deepest. Thus, if water waves are passing
from deep water into shallow water, they will slow down. This decrease in speed will also be
accompanied by a decrease in wavelength. So as water waves are transmitted from deep
water into shallow water, the speed decreases, the wavelength decreases, and the direction
changes.

3. DIFFRACTION: Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through

an opening or around a barrier in their path. Water waves have the ability to travel around
corners, around obstacles and through openings. This ability is most obvious for water waves
with longer wavelengths. Diffraction can be demonstrated by placing small barriers and
obstacles in a ripple tank and observing the path of the water waves as they encounter the
obstacles;

Fig 6.3.4

The waves are seen to pass around the barrier into the regions behind it; subsequently the
water behind the barrier is disturbed. The amount of diffraction (the sharpness of the bending)
increases with increasing wavelength and decreases with decreasing wavelength. In fact,
when the wavelength of the waves is smaller than the obstacle, no noticeable diffraction
occurs.

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

SECTION 6.1

1. Calculate the momentum of a 1600kg car travelling at 20m/s.

2. How fast is a 1.50kg ball moving if it has a momentum of 4.50kgm/s ?
3. A 5.00 kg ball accelerates at a rate of 2.00m/s2 for 1.50 seconds. Calculate the ball’s
momentum after the acceleration.
4. A 1.00 kg rock is thrown up into the air from ground level at a speed of 8.00 m/s. The
ball travels up to a maximum height, then returns to the ground. Calculate the rock’s
momentum as it strikes the ground.
5. A 1200 kg car traveling at 20.0 m/s speeds up to 30.0 m/s. What is the impulse
experienced by the car?
6. A 1.00 kg ball traveling towards a soccer player at a velocity of 5.00 m/s rebounds off
the soccer player’s foot at a velocity of 8.50 m/s. If the time of contact between the
ball and the player’s foot was 2.00 × 10-2 seconds, what was the force that the foot
applied on the ball?
7. A 1500 kg car traveling at 80.0 km/h comes to a screeching halt in a time of 4.00
seconds. Calculate the force of friction experienced by the car.
 99

8. A 2.50 kg ball moving at 7.50 m/s is caught by a 70.0 kg man while the man is
standing on ice. How fast will the man / ball combination be moving after the ball is
caught by the man?
9. A 1200 kg car traveling North at 20.0 m/s collides with a 1400 kg car traveling South
at 22.0 m/s. The two cars collide and entangle. What is the resulting velocity of the
wreckage?
10. A 5.00 kg ball hits a 75.0 kg man standing at rest on ice. The man catches the ball.
How fast does the ball need to be moving in order to send the man off at a speed of
3.00 m/s?
11. A 92.0 kg football player running at 6.50 m/s North collides with an 85.0 kg football
player running at 6.00 m/s South. The 92.0 kg football player continues moving at a
velocity of 2.00 m/s after the collision. What is the velocity of the 85.0 kg football
player after the collision?
12. A 4.00 kg ball traveling North with a momentum of 11.2 kg.m/s collides with a 6.0 kg
ball traveling west with a momentum of 18 kg.m/s. The two balls stick together and
head off as one. What is the momentum of the combined masses? What is the velocity
of the combined masses?
13. For how long a time must a tow truck pull with a force of 550 N on a stalled 1200 kg
car to give it a forward velocity of 2.0 m/s?
14. Calculate the value of vg below;

mg = 2.5 kg mb = 0.005 kg

vb = 800 m/s
vg = ? m/s

15. If the time a collision lasts for is increased, what happens to the size of the force
acting on the objects? (Remember F = “change in momentum”/time)

SECTION 6.2

1. Complete the truth tables for the following logic gates;

2. The diagram below is a block diagram of an electronic circuit. The parts of the circuit
are labelled X, Y and Z.
 100

a) Name the two types of logic gates used in the circuit.

b) Give an electrical device which could be used as:
i. the heat sensor
ii. the light sensor
c) Which part of the circuit, X, Y or Z, is:
i. the processor?
ii. the input device(s)?
iii. the output device(s)?
d) The heat sensor is ON when it is hot and OFF when it is cold. The light sensor is ON
when it is light and OFF when it is dark.
i. Explain what happens in each part of the circuit when it is both cold and dark.
ii. Describe a practical use for the circuit.

3. The figure below shows a logic circuit and its incomplete truth table. Complete the
below truth table.

A B C Q
A 0 0
C Q
0 1
B
1 0
1 1

4. The figure below shows a logic circuit and its incomplete truth table. Complete its
truth table.

A C A B C D Q
Q 0 0
B
0 1
D
1 0
1 1

5. The figure below shows a logic circuit and its incomplete truth table. Complete the
below truth table.

A A B C D Q
C
Q 0
1
B
D 0
1
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7.0 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, SYMBOLS, UNITS AND FORMULAS

Candidates are required to demonstrate an understanding of the physical quantities, and their
corresponding SI units, listed below. They will be required to use them in quantitative work
and calculations.
PHYSICAL
SYMBOLS SI UNIT(S) OTHER UNIT(S)
QUANTITY
kilometre(km); centimetre
length l, h metre (m) (cm); millimetre
(mm)
mass M, m kilogram (kg) gram (g); milligram (mg)

milliseconds (ms), minutes

time T, t seconds (s) (min), hours
(h)

temperature ʘ, T Kelvin (K) degree Celsius (°C)

current I ampere (A) milliampere (mA)

DERIVED QUANTITIES AND UNITS

PHYSICAL QUANTITY SYMBOLS UNIT(S)

Area A cm2; m2
Volume V cm3; m3
Density ρ kg/m3; g/cm3
Force F Newton (N)
Pressure P pascal (Pa); N/m2; N/cm2
Speed u,v m/s; km/h
Acceleration a m/s2
Energy E joule (J); kilojoule (kJ); megajoule (MJ)
watt (W); kilowatt (kW);
Power P
megawatt(MW)
Frequency f hertz (Hz); kilohertz (kHz)
electrical charge Q, q coulomb (C)
potential difference V volt (V)
Resistance R Ohm (Ω)
Weight W Newton (N)
acceleration of free fall g m/s2, N/kg
Work W joule (J)
specific heat capacity c J/(g°C), J/(kg°C)
specific latent heat l J/kg, J/g
Wavelength λ m, cm
electromotive force E V
 102

IMPORTANT FORMULAS;
 103

IMPORTANT FORMULAS;
Page 10 Measurements

Question 1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 45.26
a. 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = = = 2.263 𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 20
1 1
b. 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = = 0.442 𝐻𝑧
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 2.263
c. Repeating the experiment several times and taking the average to minimize the human
reaction error that occurs when using a stopwatch.
Question 2

a. Vernier caliper
Main scale reading=2.7cm
Vernier scale reading= 8x 0.01cm=0.08cm
Therefore the total reading is 2.78cm

b. Micrometer screw gauge

Main scale reading= 9.5mm
Thimble scale reading= 48x 0.01mm=0.48mm
Therefore the total reading is 9.98mm

Question 3

-Clean between the jaws because a small amount of dirt can make them have a false reading

-The eyes should be positioned in line with the mark that is being read when taking readings to
avoid parallax error

Question 4

-air resistance against the bob’s direction

-friction force at the hinge from which the pendulum is anchored from

Question 5

-Gravitational field strength

- Tension

Question 6

a. 41.2kg=41200 000g
b. 3.65km=3 650 000mm
c. 1319.79 seconds
Question 7

a. Vernier caliper
b. Ruler
c. Micrometer screw gauge

Motion Page 15

Question 1

a. 0-2s= constant acceleration

2-3s= constant velocity
3-4s= constant acceleration
4-6s= constant velocity
6-10s= constant deceleration

𝑣−𝑢 2−0
b. 𝑎 = = = 1𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 2
1 1 1
c. Distance travelled= (2 𝑥2𝑥2) + (2𝑥1) + (2 𝑥1𝑥2) + (2𝑥1) + (2𝑥4) + (2 𝑥4𝑥4) = 23𝑚

Question 2

V=u +at
𝑣−𝑢 50−3
T= = = 9.4𝑠
𝑎 5

Question 3

V2=u2 + 2as

𝑣 2 −𝑢2 02 −252
s= 2𝑥𝑎
= 2𝑥(−15) = 20.8𝑚The distance covered before stopping is less than 250m,
therefore the driver does not hit the donkey.

Question 4

V2=u2+ 2gs

V2=02+ (2x10x130)

V2=2600

V=√2600 = 51.0𝑚/𝑠
 Question 5

a. F
b. S=ut+(0.5at2)=(50x5.3)+(0.5x(-3)x(5.32)= 22.865m
𝑣 2 −𝑢2 1252−34.12
S= = = 688.6757143𝑚
2𝑥𝑎 2𝑥10.5
S=ut + 0.5at = (125x16.8)+ (0.5x(-7.44047619)x16.82)=1050m
2

Total distance travelled=1961.540714m

Question 6

a. V2=u2+2as

𝑣 2 −𝑢2 02−252
S= = = 82.2𝑚
2𝑥𝑎 2𝑥(−3.8)

b. S=ut+(0.5gt2)
0=25t+(0.5x(-3.8)t2)
t=13.2seconds

Question 7

a. The distance travelled per unit time in a specified direction

b. V2=u2+2gs
𝑣 2 −𝑢2 02 −302
s= = 2𝑥(−10) = 45𝑚
2𝑔
c. S=ut + (0.5gt2)
25=30t +(0.5x10xt2)
−𝑏±√𝑏2−4𝑎𝑐
Use quadratic equation 𝑡 =
2𝑎
t=1s going up
t=5s going down

Question 8
𝑣−𝑢 125−0
a. 𝑎 = 𝑡
= 6
= 20.83𝑚/𝑠2
(𝑉+𝑢) (125+0)
b. 𝑠 = 2
𝑡= 2
6 = 375𝑚
c. V=u+at
𝑣−𝑢 0−125
0t= = = 20.83𝑠
𝑎 −6
Stability Page 18
Question 1
𝑤 5000𝑁
m= = = 500𝑘𝑔
𝑔 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔

Question 2
The boy will stop first as he has a smaller mass and therefore a smaller inertia

Question 3
W=mg=230kg x 10N/kg=2300N

Question 4
-Contact area with the base-the larger the contact area with the base, the greater the stability
-position of center of gravity-the lower the center of gravity, the greater the stability

Question 5

mass weight

Amount of matter in a body Amount gravity on a body

It’s a scalar quantity It’s a vector quantity

Does not change anywhere Changes with gravitational field

strength

Question 6
a. W=mg=100kg×10N/kg=1000N
b. W=mg=100kg×3.8N/kg=380N
c. 100kg

Question 7

Babies have smaller mass and therefore a smaller inertia as compared to adults, therefore during
a car accident they are easily stopped by obstruction in a crash and suffer less impact.

Question 8

So the mass is first concentrated at the bottom for the bus to have a lower center of gravity
Question 9

W=mg=0.575kg×0.62N/kg=0.3565N
Density Page 19

Question 1
Mass A=Density x volume=5g/cm3×25cm3=125g
Mass B= Density x volume=8g/cm3×54cm3=432g
Total mass=557g

𝑚 557𝑔
Density= = = 7.05𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝑣 79

Question 2
Volume of stone=13.7cm3
Mass of stone= 13.4g
𝑚 13.4
D= = 13.7 = 0.978𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝑣

Question 3
M=D×V=2.8g/cm3x27000cm3=75600g
W= M×a=75600/1000×10=756N

Forces Page 26

Question1

a. 50x=30(1-x)
X=0.375m
b. The beam is in equilibrium
c. Anticlockwise moments=50Nx 0.375m=18.75Nm
Clockwise moments= 30N (1-0.375m)=18.75Nm
Anticlockwise moments=Clockwise moments

Question 2

Anticlockwise moments=Clockwise moments

(50Nx2.5m)+(20Nx1.5m)=(100Nx1.2m)+(Fx3.7m)

F=9.459N

Question 3

Anticlockwise moments=Clockwise moments

20N x 0.8m = 40N x dm

dm=0.4m

Question 4

F=ma

Question 5

𝑓 1500𝑁
𝑎 = = 3𝑁/𝑘𝑔
𝑚 500𝑘𝑔

Question 6

F=ma=0.650kg ×25m/s2=16.25N

Question 7

F=ma=3kg ×2m/s2=6N

Question 8

a. F=nke
𝑓 5 10
b. k= 𝑒 = 4.5 = 𝑁/𝑐𝑚
9
10
𝑁
c. x=3 x ( 𝑐𝑚 ) 𝑥 6𝑐𝑚 = 20𝑁
9

Question 9

a. F= ke
15𝑁
15N=k x (17-X) 𝑘 = 17−𝑋

35N=k x (3X- X)

15𝑁
35N= 𝑘 = 𝑥 (3𝑋 − 𝑋)
17−𝑋
X=7.53cm

Question 10

The extension produced on a spring is directly proportional to load up to the limit of

proportionality.
Energy Page 32

Question 1
𝑣−𝑢 30−0
a. V=u +at 𝑎 = = = 25𝑠
𝑡 1.2

b. F=ma=5000kg x 1.2m/s2=6000N
𝑤 6000𝑁 𝑥 37.5𝑚
c. 𝑃 − = = 90 000 𝑊
𝑡 2.5𝑆

Question 2

W=f x S=300 000N x 10m=3 000 000 J

Question 3
1 1
KE=2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝑥0.218kg (5.252m/s)=3.00J

Question 4

W=F×D=1(300kg×10m/s2)×40m=520 000J

P= W/t =520 000J/6sec=86666.67W

Question 5

a. i. The mass of each student

ii. The distance up the stairs
iii. The time each student takes to run up the stairs (must be recorded by more than one
stopwatch)

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
b. Power=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Work= force x Distance
Force=mass x acceleration

c. Gravitational Potential Energy

Question 6

a. F=mg=100kg x 10N/kg= 1000N

b. W=f x S=1000N x 2m=2000J
Question 7

a. Energy is the ability to do work

b. Joule
c. Heat energy
d. Friction force

Question 8

a. GPE= mgh= 40kgx10N/kg x3m=1200J

1
b. KE= 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1200J=0.5x40kgxV2
V=√60 m/s =7.75m/s
c. Loss of energy during contact with the trampoline

Pressure Page 36

Question 1

a. P=ρgh= 800kg/m3x10m/s2x3m=24000Pa
b. F=pxa=24000Pax0.5m2=12000N
c. Gravitational Potential energy to Kinetic Energy

Question 2

a. P=ρgh=1000kg/m3x10m/s2x50m=500 000Pa
b. F=Pxa=500 000Pax 0.0072m2=3600N

Question 3

760mmHg
Question 4

The level of mercury rises in the tube as the increase in pressure pushes the mercury into the tube

Question 5
𝑓 300𝑁
P= = = 2000𝑃𝑎
𝑎 0.15

Question 6

P=ρgh= (1.36x104kg/m3)x10m/s2x0.460m=62560Pa

Question 7

a. Pressure is the force applied per unit area on an object.

b. P=ρgh=1000kg/m3x10m/s2x0.5m=5000Pa
c. The pressure exerted will be greater

Question 8
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Question 9

These are lines on a weather chart that connects places of similar atmospheric pressure.
Closely packed isobars indicate high pressure difference over a short distance
Widely packed isobars indicate gently pressure gradient.

Question 10

P=ρgh=1000kg/m3x 10N/kgx0.25m=2500Pa

Thermal Physics page 45

Question 1
All matter is made up of tiny particles which are in constant random motion

Question 2

Conduction-It is the transfer of thermal energy from one particle to the other through the
medium of a material resulting from physical contact.
Convection-it is the transfer of thermal energy by means of currents in the medium of a
material (normally gases and liquids)
Radiation-It is the flow of thermal energy by means of electromagnetic waves
Question 3

evaporation boiling

Occurs at a range of temperatures Occurs at a specific temperature

Takes places at the surface of the liquid Takes place throughout the whole
liquid

Question 4

a. Dark surfaces are good absorbers of heat

b. To reduce heat loss through conduction
c. Solar panels use free, renewable source of energy

Question 5

In a refrigerator, convection is used to circulate cold air around the food. Air is cooled by freezer
compartment at the top of refrigerator. As it sinks, it is replaced by warmer air rising from below.
The circulating air carries away heat energy from all the food in the fridge.

Question 6

To increase surface area for high heat loss

Question 7

Double glass wall-has a vacuum to minimize heat loss through conduction and convection

Rubber stopper-Reduce heat loss through conduction and convection

Silver surface-Reduce heat loss through thermal radiation

Question 8

Absorbing thermal radiation-black metal surface

Emitting thermal radiation-black metal surface

Reflecting thermal radiation-White and silver metal surfaces

 Question 9

Expansion leads to an increase in volume of liquids

Expansion leads to an increase in size of solids

Expansion leads to an increase in pressure of gases

Question 10

Thermostats are devices that are used to control temperature. When the electric circuit is
switched on, the heater heats up and the bimetallic strip bends away from the contact thereby
breaking the circuit.

Question 11 Commented [1]: e) When water freezes it

expands,molecules link up in a very open structure that takes
up more space-increase in volume hence force of expansion
a. Q=mcΔT=3000kgx4.2J/kg0Cx80C=100 800J may burst the bottle.
b. Some of the energy was lost
c. M=DxV=1.0g/cm3x200cm3=200g
d. Q=mcΔT=200gx340J/g=68000J

e. When water freezes it expands, molecules link up in a very open structure hence force of
expansion may burst the bottle.

Question 12

Heat capacity-is a measurable quantity equal to the ratio of the heat absorbed or released.

Specific heat capacity-is the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of 1kg of the
substance by 1°C

Latent heat of fusion-is the amount of heat energy needed to change the substance a mass of 1kg
from solid to liquid.

Latent heat of vaporization-is the amount of heat energy needed to change the substance from a
liquid to vapour.

Question 13

Q=mcΔT=0.5kgx200Cx4200J/Kg0C=42000 J

Question 14

Volume=0.5m2×0.003m=0.0015m3

M=dxv=1000kg/m3×0.0015m3=1.5kg
Q=mv=1.5kg×(2.2×106J/kg)=3 300 000J

Question 15
𝑉𝐼𝑡
a. L=
𝑀
𝑉𝐼𝑡
b. L= =(12Vx2.0x3750s)/0.12kg=750000J/kg
𝑀
c. Energy is required to overcome the forces of attraction between water molecules

Waves Page 58

Question 1

Transverse waves are waves that carry vibrations or individual particles perpendicular to the
direction of motion of the wave while longitudinal waves are waves in which vibrations or
individual particles vibrate along or in line with the direction of motion of the wave.

Question 2

-Water waves

-Radio waves

Question 3

-seismic waves

-sound waves

Question 4

-womb scanning

-metal testing

Question 5

a. Light is faster than sound

b. D=sxt=4sx330m/s=1320m

Question 6

a. 220 ×2=440m
b. t=2d/s=440m/(330m/s)=1.3s
c. d=sxt=(330m/s)x0.5s=165m
Question 7

S=2d/t=2x300m/2s=300m/s

Question 8

-The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.

-The higher the amplitude the louder the sound

Question 9

-they are transverse waves

-they can be absorbed and emitted by matter

-they obey refraction and reflection laws

Question 10

a. Infrared
b. Visible light
c. X-rays
d. Ultraviolet rays
e. Ultraviolet rays

Question 11
𝑐 3𝑥108𝑚/𝑠
𝜆 = 𝑓 = 1.0𝑥1014 𝐻𝑧 = 3𝑥10−16m

Question 12

-the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

-the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal line all lie on the same plane

Question 13

-the image is upright

-the image is same size as the object

-the image is laterally inverted

Question 14

Reflection is the bouncing back of light when it hits a medium while Refraction is the bending of
light when it passes from one medium to another which both has different densities.

Question 15
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 3.0𝑥108
Refractive index= = = 2.4
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑 1.25𝑥108

Question 16
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45
Sin r = = =0.47
𝑛 1.5

r=28.1

Question 17

-optical fibers

-endoscope

Question 18

Concave lens Convex lens

Headlamps Car mirrors
Shaving mirrors Security mirrors

Magnetism page 80

Question 1

-Magnets attract magnetic materials only

-magnetic strength is concentrated at the poles

-like poles repel while unlike poles attract

Question 2

-temporary magnets=iron

-permanent magnets=steel
Question 3

Hard magnetic materials Soft magnetic materials

Make permanent magnets Makes temporary magnets
Forms weaker magnets Forms stronger magnets

Question 4

Demagnetization is the process of destroying magnetic property of a material

-heating

-hammering

Using alternating current

Question 5

Question 6

-stroking

-using direct current

Question 7

A steel bar is stroked from end to end several times in the same direction with a known pole of a
permanent magnet. The end of the steel bar where the stroking ends will have an opposite pole to
the stroking end of the permanent magnet.
Question 8

When the switch of the electric bell is closed, the soft iron core becomes magnetized. The
magnetized core attracts the soft armature. The hammer hits the gong and the electrical circuit is
broken at the contacts. The soft iron core then demagnetizes and the armature is pulled back to
its original position. The electrical contact is remade and the bell rings.

Question 9

The nail loses its magnetic property

Question 10

-picking up scrap metals

-motors

-generators

Electricity Page 81

Question 1

Static electricity is the accumulation of electric charge on an object due to friction between two
objects.

-negative charge, positive charge

Question 2

Conductors are materials that allow electrons to pass through them while insulators materials in
which electrons are not free to move in them.

Question 3

The gold leaf electroscope

A charged rod is placed near the plate. The gold leaf will rise if the rod is charged because
electrons are transferred from the electroscope to the rod, such that the electroscope has large
positive charge.

Question 4

It is a region surrounding a charged material in which an electric force is experienced or

detected. The direction of electric field lines is always from the positive charge to the negative
charge.
Question 5

A negatively charged rod is placed near the neutral sphere. This will cause the negative charges
to move to the left side of the rod.

The negative side of the conductor is earthed and electrons move to the earth.

Question 6

i. Contact with live wires causing shocks and burns

ii. Could cause fires
iii. Damp conditions can allow current to flow outside the wire causing shocks

Question 7
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a. = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 12 + 6 + 18 =11/36 Ω R=3.27Ω
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
b. = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 15 + 3 + 7 =19/35Ω R=1.84Ω
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

1 1 1 1 1
c. = + = + =4/15Ω R=3.75Ω
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅2 5 15

𝑣 12
d. I= 𝑟 = 3.75 = 3.2𝐴

e. 12V

f. 12V
Question 8

a. Rtotal=R1+R2+R3=3+12+5=20Ω
𝑣 50
b. 𝐼 = = = 2.5𝐴 Commented [2]: 0.0025A
𝑟 20
c. 4.2A

Question 9

Power=voltage x current

Question 10

A= switch

B= Battery

C= Resistor

D= Light emitting diode

Question 11

P=vxI=240x500=120 000W

Question 12
𝑃 60
I= 𝑉 = 240 = 0.25𝐴

Question 13

a. Cost=Power(kw) x time(hr) x cost of one unit(P)=4kw x 6hrs x 0.15 =P3.60

b. Cost=Power(kw) x time(hr) x cost of one unit(P)=0.12kw x 0.5hrs x 0.15=P0.009=P0.01

Question 14

A=Earth wire-it’s a safety wire

B=Live wire-its voltage goes alternatively negative and positively making the current flow
backwards and forwards and forward through the circuit.

C=Fuse-thin piece of wire which breaks the circuit when the current goes high.

D=Neutral wire-it completes the circuit. it is kept at zero voltage by the electricity supply
company
E=Outer insulation

F=Cable grip

Electromagnetic effects Page 83

Question 1

a. The pointer deflects to the left

b. The pointer deflects back to the right
c. –using a stronger magnet
-moving the magnet faster
-increasing the number of turns of the coil

Question 2

A step up transformer has more turns in the secondary coil than in the primary coil while a step
down transformer has more voltage in the primary coil than in the secondary coil.

Question 3
𝑉𝑠 𝑥𝑁𝑝 12𝑥100
Ns= = = 5 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑉𝑝 240

Question 4

To reduce power loss due to resistance

Question 5

An induced current always flows in a direction such that it opposes the change which produced
it.

Question 6

a. The pointer deflects

𝑁𝑠 𝑥𝑉𝑝 800𝑥250
b. Vs= = = 1000𝑉
𝑁𝑝 200

Radioactivity

Question 1

The process whereby an unstable nucleus disintegrates spontaneously by emission of particles in

order to become stable.
Question 2

Treatment of cancer

Bone fracture imaging

Question 3

Gamma radiation

Question 4

Alpha Beta Gamma

Has a positive charge Negative charge Neutral
Each particle contains a Each particle is an electron Electromagnetic waves
helium atom

Question 5 Commented [3]: Gene mutation.

Radiation burn

Radiation sickness

Cancer

Gene mutation

Question 6

This is the small amount of radiation around us because of radioactive materials in the
environment which is detected when no radioactive source is present.

-soil

-Air

Question 7

Geiger Müller tube

A GM tube is a gas-filled device that, when a high voltage is applied, creates an electrical pulse
when radiation interacts with the wall or gas in the tube. These pulses are converted to a reading
on the instrument meter.

Question 8

Nuclear fission occurs when a heavy nucleus splits spontaneously or on impact with another
particle accompanied with the release of energy while nuclear fusion occurs when atomic nuclei
of low atomic number fuse to form a heavier nucleus accompanied by the release of energy.
Question 9

a. The reaction is possible because the emission of gamma radiation results in no change of
A and Z
b. The reaction is possible because the emission of an alpha radiation results in decrease of
A by 4 and Z by 2.

Question 10

Some substance are radioactive because they contain radioactive isotopes while some are not
radioactive because they do not contain radioactive isotopes.

a. The time Taken for the activity of a given radioactive sample to decay to half its
original value.

Question 11

a. A=𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 =24 counts per minute

b. 36hours
c. Because Technetium-99 only emits gamma rays which are highly penetrating and mostly
will not be absorbed by the body
d. Beta particle, -10e

Question 12

a. After 5 hours the activity of the radioactive isotope would be half its original value
b.

Time (hrs) 0 105 15 20 25 30

Count rate (R) 1/2RR

x 1/4Rx 1/8Rx 1/16Rx 1/32Rx 1/64Rx
x

c. half-life=4 hours

IGCSE material page 98

Question 1

P=mv=1600kg x 20m/s=32000kg∙m/s
Question 2
𝑝 4.50𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
V= = = 3𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 1.50𝑘𝑔

Question 3

V=u+at=0+(2m/s2x1.5s)=3m/s

P=mv=5kg x 3m/s=15kg m/s

Question 4

V=u+at=8m/s+ (-10x1.6) =-8m/s

P=mv=1.00kg x -8m/s=-8kgm/s

Question 5

I=m(v-u)=1200kg(30-20)=12000Ns

Question 6
8.5𝑚 5𝑚
𝑚(𝑣−𝑢) 1(− − )
F= = 𝑠
2𝑥10−2
𝑠
= −675𝑁
𝑡

Question 7
𝑚(𝑣−𝑢) 1500(0−(200/9)
F= = = −8333.3𝑁
𝑡 4

Question 8
𝑚𝑏𝑥𝑉𝑏 2.5𝑥7.5
V= 𝑚𝑏+𝑚 = 2.5+70 = 0.259𝑚/𝑠

Question 9

𝑚1 𝑢1 +𝑚2 𝑢2 (1200𝑥(−20))+(1400𝑥22)
V= 𝑚1 +𝑚2
= 1200+1400
=2.62m/s

Question 10
𝑣𝑏𝑚 (𝑚𝑏 +𝑚) 3(5+75)
V= = = 48𝑚/𝑠
𝑚𝑏 5
Question 11
(𝑚1 𝑢1 )+(𝑚2 𝑢2 )−(𝑚1 𝑣1) (92𝑥6.5)+(85𝑥(−6))−(92𝑥2)
V2= = = −1.13𝑚/𝑠
𝑚2 85

Question 12

a. Sum of momentum before collision=sum of momentum after collision

P=Σmv=11.2kgm/s +18 kgm/s=29.2kgm/s

𝛴𝑚𝑣 29.2𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
b. V= = = 2.92𝑚/𝑠
𝑚1+𝑚2 4+6

Question 13
𝐹 550𝑁
a=𝑚 = 1200𝑘𝑔 = 0.458𝑚/𝑠 2

𝑣−𝑢 2−0
t= = 0.458 = 4.37𝑠
𝑎

Question 14
−𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏 −0.005𝑥800
Vg= 𝑚𝑔
= = 1.6𝑚/𝑠
2.5

Question 15

The size of force decreases

Digital Electronics

Question 1

NOT Gate

Input Output
P X
0 1
1 0

AND Gate

Input Output
P Q X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Question 2

a. NOT Gate, AND Gate

b. i. Commented [4]: Thermistor

ii. Commented [5]: LDR

c. i. Part Y
ii. Part X
iii. Part Z

d. i. In part X both light sensor and heat sensor are off. In part Y the inputs in the NOT gates
is 0 and therefore the outputs are 1, in the AND gate both inputs are 1 therefore the
output is 1. In part Z the input is on therefore the heater will be switched on.
ii. The circuit can be used for heating a house only at night

Question 3

A B C Q
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0

Question 4

A B C D Q
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1

Question 5

A B C D Q
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1