DISRTIBUTION SYSTEMS

That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as distribution system.
In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station fed by the distribution
system and the consumers meters. It generally consists of feeders, distributors and the service mains.

Feeders:

A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or

localized generating station) to the area where power is to be
distributed. Generally, no taps are taken from the feeder so
that current in it remains the same throughout. The main
consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying
capacity.
Distributor
A distributor is a conductor from which taps are taken for supply to the consumers. In the figure, AB, BC, CD and
DA are the distributors. The current through a distributor is not constant because taps are taken at various places
along its length. While designing a distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main consideration since the
statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’ terminals.

Main Services
A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the distributor to the consumers’ terminals.

Classification of Distribution Systems

A distribution system may be classified according to:

(i) Nature of current:

According to nature of current, distribution system may be classified as (a) d.c. distribution system (b) a.c.
distribution system.
Now-a-days, a.c. system is universally adopted for distribution of electric power as it is simpler and more
economical than direct current method.
 (ii) Type of construction:
According to type of construction, distribution system may be classified as (a) overhead system (b) underground system.
The overhead system is generally employed for distribution as it is 5 to 10 times cheaper than the equivalent
underground system. In general, the underground system is used at places where overhead construction is impracticable
or prohibited by the local laws.

(iii) Scheme of connection:

According to scheme of connection, the distribution system may be classified as (a) radial system (b) ring main system
(c) inter-connected system. Each scheme has its own advantages and disadvantages

A.C.Distribution
Now-a-days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current.
▪ Alternating current in preferred to direct current is the fact that alternating voltage can be
conveniently changed by means of a transformer.
▪ High distribution and distribution voltages have greatly reduced the current in the conductors and the resulting line
losses.
▪ The a.c. distribution system is the electrical system between the stepdown substation fed
by the distribution system and the consumers’ meters.

The a.c. distribution system is classified into:

(i) primary distribution system and (ii) secondary distribution system.
Primary Distribution System

It is that part of a.c. distribution system which operates at voltages somewhat higher than general utilization than the
average low- voltage consumer uses the most commonly used primary distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6·6kV and
3·3 kV. Primary distribution is carried out by 3-phase, 3-wire system.
Fig. shows a typical primary distribution system. Electric power from the generating station is transmitted at high
voltage to the substation located in or near the city. At this substation, voltage is stepped down to 11 kV with the help
of step-down transformer. Power is supplied to various substations for distribution or to big consumers at this
voltage. This forms the high voltage distribution or primary distribution.

Secondary Distribution System

It is that part of a.c. distribution system which employs 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system. The figure in the next page
shows a typical secondary distribution system.

The primary distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called distribution substations. The substations
are situated near the consumers’ localities and contain step down transformers.

At each distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V and power is delivered by 3-phase, 4-wire a.c.
system. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is 230 V.

The single phase domestic loads are connected between any one phase and the neutral,

Motor loads are connected across 3-phase lines directly.

DC Distribution
It is a common knowledge that electric power is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed
as a.c.
However, for certain applications, d.c. supply is absolutely necessary. For instance, d.c. supply is required for the
operation of variable speed machinery (i.e., d.c. motors), for electrochemical work and for congested areas where
storage battery reserves are necessary.

For this purpose, a.c. power is converted into d.c. power at the substation by using converting machinery e.g.,
mercury arc rectifiers, rotary converters and motor-generator sets.

The d.c. supply from the substation may be obtained in the form of (i) 2-wire or (ii) 3-wire for distribution.

Two wire Three wire

A.C. DISTRIBUTION:

Advantages:
(i) The power can be generated at high voltages.

(ii) The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.

(iii) The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers with ease and efficiency. This permits to
transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe potentials.

Disadvantages:
(i) An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.

(ii) The construction of a.c. distribution line is more complicated than a d.c. distribution line.

(iii) Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line is increased.

(iv) An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of power due to charging current even when
the line is open.
The Overhead vs. Underground System
• The distribution system can be overhead or underground.

▪ Overhead lines are generally mounted on wooden, concrete or steel poles which are arranged to carry distribution
transformers in addition to the conductors.

▪ The underground system uses conduits, cables and manholes under the surface of streets and sidewalks.

The choice between overhead and underground system depends upon a number of widely differing factors such as,
public safety, initial cost, flexibility, faults, appearance, fault location and repairs, useful life, maintenance cost,
interference with communication networks
Connection Schemes of Distribution Systems

(i) Radial System

In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the distributors at one end only. The
schemes for dc and ac distribution are shown in the figures.
This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost.

Drawback :
(a) The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
(b) Any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the side of the fault .
(c) The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious voltage fluctuations when the load
on the distributor changes.
Due to these limitations, this system is used for short distances only.
(ii) Ring main system
In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop.
The loop circuit starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be served, and returns to the
substation.
Fig. shows the single line diagram of ring main system for a.c. distribution where substation supplies to the closed feeder
LMNOPQRS.
The distributors are tapped from different points M, O and Q of the feeder through distribution transformers.

Advantages
(a) There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
(b) The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via *two feeders. In the event of fault on any section of
the feeder, the continuity of supply is maintained.
Interconnected Systems

When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two generating stations or substations, it is called inter-
connected system.

Fig. shows the single line diagram of interconnected system where the closed feeder ring
ABCD is supplied by two substations S1 and S2 at points D and C respectively.

Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q and R of the feeder ring through distribution transformers.
Advantages

(a) It increases the service reliability.

(b) Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be fed from the other generating station. This
reduces reserve power capacity and increases efficiency of the system.

A.C. Distribution Voltage Calculation

Methods of Solving AC Distribution Problems

In a.c. distribution calculations, power factors of various load currents have to be considered since currents in
different sections of the distributor will be the vector sum of load currents. The power factors of load currents may
be given (i) w.r.t. receiving or sending end voltage or (ii) w.r.t. to load voltage itself. We will consider that the
currents and voltages are all w.r.t. receiving end voltage.

Consider an a.c. distributor AB with concentrated loads of I1 and I2 tapped off at points C and B as shown in the Fig.
Taking the receiving end voltage VB as the reference vector, let lagging power factors at C and B be cos ϕ1 and cos ϕ2
w.r.t. VB. Let R1, X1 and R2, X2 be the resistance and reactance of sections AC and CB of the distributor.
The vector diagram of the a.c. distributor under these conditions is shown in the Fig. Here, the receiving end voltage
VB is taken as the reference vector. As power factors of loads are given w.r.t. VB, therefore, I1 and I2 lag behind VB by 1
and 21 respectively.
Example 1 A single phase a.c. distributor AB 300 meters long is fed from end A and is loaded as under :

(i) 100 A at 0·707 p.f. lagging 200 m from point A

(ii) 200 A at 0·8 p.f. lagging 300 m from point A

The load resistance and reactance of the distributor is 0·2  and 0·1  per kilometer. Calculate the total voltage drop in
the distributor. The load power factors refer to the voltage at the far end. Impedance of distributor/km = (0·2 + j 0·1) 
Example 2 A single phase distributor 2 kilometers long supplies a load of 120 A at 0·8 p.f. lagging at its far end
and a load of 80 A at 0·9 p.f. lagging at its mid-point. Both power factors are referred to the voltage at the far end. The
resistance and reactance per km (go and return) are 0·05  and 0·1  respectively. If the voltage at the far end is
maintained at 230 V, calculate :
(i) voltage at the sending end
(ii) phase angle between voltages at the two ends.

Solution. Fig. below shows the distributor AB with C as the mid-point

Impedance of distributor/km = (0·05 + j 0·1) 
Impedance of section AC, ZAC = (0·05 + j 0·1)  1000/1000 = (0·05 + j 0·1) 
Impedance of section CB, ZCB = (0·05 + j 0·1)  1000/1000 = (0·05 + j 0·1) 
Example 3 A single phase distributor one km long has resistance and reactance per conductor of 0·1  and 0·15 
respectively. At the far end, the voltage VB = 200 V and the current is 100A at a p.f. of 0·8 lagging. At the mid-point M
of the distributor, a current of 100 A is tapped at a p.f. of 0·6 lagging with reference to the voltage VM at the mid-point.
Calculate :
(i) voltage at mid-point
(ii) sending end voltage VA
(iii) phase angle between VA and VB

Soluion Figure shows the single line diagram of the distributor AB with M as the mid-point.
Total impedance of distributor = 2(0·1 + j 0·15) = (0·2 + j 0·3) 
Impedance of section AM, ZAM = (0·1 + j 0·15) 
Impedance of section MB, ZMB = (0·1 + j 0·15) 
Let the voltage VB at point B be taken as the reference vector.
Then, VB = 200 + j 0
Example 4. A single phase ring distributor ABC is fed at A. The loads at B and C are 20 A
at 0.8 p.f. lagging and 15 A at 0.6 p.f. lagging respectively ; both expressed with reference to the
voltage at A. The total impedance of the three sections AB, BC and CA are (1 + j 1), (1+ j2) and
(1 + j3) ohms respectively. Find the total current fed at A and the current in each section. Use
Thevenin’s theorem to obtain the results.
Solution. Fig. 14.7 (i) shows the ring distributor ABC. Thevenin’s theorem will be used to solve
this problem. First, let us find the current in BC. For this purpose, imagine that section BC is
removed as shown in Fig. 14.7 (ii).
Example 5. A 3-phase ring main ABCD fed at A at 11 kV supplies balanced loads of 50 A at
0.8 p.f. lagging at B, 120 A at unity p.f. at C and 70 A at 0·866 lagging at D, the load currents being
referred to the supply voltage at A. The impedances of the various sections are :
Section AB = (1 + j 0·6) Ω; Section BC = (1·2 + j 0·9) Ω
Section CD = (0·8 + j 0·5)Ω ; Section DA = (3 + j 2) Ω
Calculate the currents in various sections and station bus-bar voltages at B, C and D.
Solution. Fig.14.9 shows one phase of the ring main. The problem will be solved by Kirchhoff’s
laws. Let current in section AB be (x + j y).