Chapter 2

Motion Along a Straight Line

2.1 Motion
2.2 Position and Displacement
2.3 Average velocity and average speed
2.4 Instantaneous velocity and speed
2.5 Acceleration
2.6 Constant acceleration
2.7 Free-Fall Acceleration
Motion
• In this chapter we will study the motion of objects only in
a straight line.
• We will not study the force causing this motion (this part
will come later)
• Motion in a straight line can be vertical, horizontal, or
slanted, but it must be straight.

Position and Displacement

• To locate an object means to find its position relative to some reference point, often the origin
(or zero point) of an axis such as the x axis.
• Position can be on the positive direction or on the negative direction of the axis.

Object is located at Object is located at

x=–4m x=3m
x (m)
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
Origin
Position and Displacement
• A change from position x1 to position x2 is called a displacement Δx, where

Δx = x2 − x1

• For example, if the particle moves from x1 = 5 m to x2 = 12 m, then the displacement is

Δx = (12 m) − (5 m) = +7 m. The positive result indicates that the motion is in the positive direction.

• If the particle moves from x1 = 5 m to x2 = 1 m, then Δx = (1 m) − (5 m) = −4 m. The negative result

indicates that the motion is in the negative direction.
Position and Displacement
• Displacement is not always equal to the total distance covered in the trip
• Displacement is the net change in position between original and final positions
• Displacement is a vector: it is described by a magnitude and a direction
• Distance is a scalar (it has no direction)

• If you move between initial position xi to a final position xf as shown, then displacement ≠ distance

Displacement Distance
Net change between initial Total trip from initial position
Displacement position xi to a final position xf xi to a final position xf
Does not depend on the path Depends on the path of motion
xi xf of motion
Vector Scalar
SI unit: m SI unit: m
Position and Displacement
∵ Displacement is a vector

∴ To determine the displacement of an object, you need to specify

1- Magnitude (The distance between the initial and final positions)

2- Direction (Negative or positive sing)

xi xf
x (m) Displacement x = 3 m means the object
-2 -1 0 1 2 position has changed by 3 m in the
x = 3 m positive direction.

xf xi Displacement x = –3 m means the object

x (m) position has changed by 3 m in the
-2 -1 0 1 2
negative direction.
x = –3 m
Position and Displacement
Here you can see the difference between displacement and distance on the x-axis:

xi xf x = 1 m.
x (m) Total distance = 7 m.
-2 -1 0 1 2

xf xi x = – 1 m.
x (m) Total distance = 7 m.
-2 -1 0 1 2

xi xf x = 1 m.
x (m) Total distance = 1 m.
-2 -1 0 1 2
Average Velocity and Average Speed
To measure “how fast” an object is moving, we use two quantities:
1) average velocity vavg
2) average speed savg
Suppose an object is at position x1 at time t1 , and then moves and reaches position x2 at time t2.
x1 x2
x

Time elapsed
Δt
This means that the displacement Δx occurs during a particular time interval Δt
The average velocity Vavg is defined as:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ∆𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡
Average Velocity and Average Speed
• Because displacement is a vector ⟹ velocity is a vector (velocity always has direction)
• Average velocity vavg always has the same sign as the displacement Δx:
positive displacement ⟹ positive velocity
negative displacement ⟹ negative velocity
• The SI unit of velocity is m/s

• Average speed savg is the second way of describing “how fast” an object moves.
• The average speed involves the total distance covered during the motion:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡

• Because distance is scalar, speed is scalar (has no direction).

• Average speed vavg is always positive.
• The SI unit of speed is m/s
Average Velocity and Average Speed
Comparison between velocity and speed:

Velocity Speed
displacement distance
time time
Does not depend on the path Depends on the path of
of motion motion
Vector Scalar
SI unit: m/s SI unit: m/s

• Average speed is not always equal to the magnitude of average velocity.

• Both vavg and savg are measured over a time interval Δt (not for a specific instant during
the motion), thus they are called “average”
Example: a man walked as shown in the figure, then stopped at the point P. The total
time that he takes during his walk was 250 s. calculate the distance, displacement,
average speed, and average velocity.

Solution:

Distance = 70 + 50 = 120 m
The + sign means that the displacement and the
Displacement = +20 m velocity are in the positive direction of x-axis
distance 120
Average speed = = = 0.48 m/s
time 250
displacement +20
Average velocity = = = + 0.08 m/s
time 250
Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

• You have now seen two ways to describe how fast something moves: average velocity and average
speed, both of which are measured over a time interval Δt.

• However, we can also describe how fast a particle is moving at a given instant—its instantaneous
velocity (or simply velocity) v.
∆𝑥
𝑣 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡

• Velocity (v) is the derivative of position (x) with respect to time (t)

• v is a vector (it has direction)

• To calculate the instantaneous velocity at a time = to:

1) Calculate the first derivative of the position equation with respect to time
2) Substitute the value of to at the result of derivation
• Using the instantaneous velocity, we can define the instantaneous speed or simply speed

• Speed is the magnitude of velocity; that is, speed is velocity but without any direction.

• For example, a velocity of +5 m/s and another velocity of −5 m/s both have an associated speed
of 5 m/s.

• Speed is scalar (it has no direction), and it is always positive.

• Note: speed and average speed can be different.

Example: If a particle’s position is given by x = 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3 (where t is in
seconds and x is in meters), a) what is its velocity at t = 2 s
b) what is the speed at this time?
Solution:
a)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
𝑣= = 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

= 0 – 12 + 6t – 15 t2

At t = 2 s,

v = 0 – 12 + 6 (2) − 15 (2)2
= – 12 + 12 − 15 (4) = – 60 m/s

This result means that at the instant t = 2 s, the particle was moving with a velocity =
60 m/s in the negative direction.
b) The speed at t = 2 s is the magnitude of the velocity at this instant:
𝑆 = 𝑣 = −60 = 60 m/s
 Exrcises
• An object is moving according to the equation 𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑡2 + 𝑡 + 4 , where x is the position in meter and t the
time in seconds. The average velocity between 𝑡 = 2𝑠 and 𝑡 = 4𝑠 is :
a) 𝑣̅ = −5 𝑚/𝑠 b) 𝑣̅ = 5 𝑚/𝑠 c) 𝑣̅ = −10 𝑚/𝑠 d) 𝑣̅ = 10 𝑚/𝑠

• In previous question, The instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 2𝑠 is :

a) 𝑣 = −1 𝑚/𝑠 b) 𝑣 = −5 𝑚/𝑠 c) 𝑣 = 3 𝑚/𝑠 d) 𝑣 = −3 𝑚/𝑠

• The position of a particle on a straight line is given by the following equation

𝑥(𝑡) = 32 − 5𝑡 + 2𝑡2 (x in meters and t in seconds). The average velocity between 𝑡 = 2𝑠 and 𝑡 = 4𝑠 is :

a) 𝑣̅ = 7 𝑚/𝑠 b) 𝑣̅ = 14 𝑚/𝑠 c) 𝑣̅ = −14 𝑚/𝑠 d) 𝑣̅ = −7 𝑚/𝑠

Acceleration
• When a particle’s velocity changes, the particle is said to have acceleration
• Suppose an object is has a velocity v1 at time t1, and then changes its velocity to v2 at time t2 ,
then, the average acceleration aavg is defined as

𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡
• Also, there is instantaneous acceleration or simply acceleration a, which is defined as:

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡

Or,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎= = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

Acceleration is the first derivative of v with respect to t

OR
Acceleration is the second derivative of x with respect to t
• To calculate the instantaneous acceleration at a time = to:
1) Calculate the first derivative of the velocity equation with respect to time
OR
calculate the second derivative of the position equation with respect to time
2) Substitute the value of to at the result of derivation

• Acceleration is vector (it has direction)

• The SI unit of acceleration is m/s2

• Acceleration can be positive or negative.
• If the signs of the velocity and acceleration of a particle are the same, the speed of the particle
increases. If the signs are opposite, the speed decreases.

The signs of both a and v are opposite The signs of both a and v are the same
(one is positive but the other is (both positive or both negative)
negative) ⟹ the speed is increasing
⟹ the speed is decreasing
Example: If a particle’s position is given by x = 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3 (where t is in
seconds and x is in meters), what is its acceleration at t = 2 s?

Solution:
We can derive the velocity v from the last example (it is the same as taking the
second derivative of the equation given in the question),

𝑑𝑥 𝑑
We had: 𝑣 = = 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⸫ v = 12 + 6t – 15 t2

𝑑𝑣 𝑑
⟹ a= = 12 + 6t – 15 t2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⸫ a = 6 – 30 t

At t = 2 s,

a = 6 − 30 (2) = 6 − 60 = – 54 m/s2
Example : A car’s position is given by x = – 1.4 + 2.5 t4 + t3 (where t is in seconds and x is
in meters), find:
a) its positions at t1 = 0.9 s, and t2 = 2 s,
b) average velocity between t1 = 0.9 s, and t2 = 2 s,
c) instantaneous velocities at t1 = 0.9 s, and t2 = 2 s,
d) average acceleration between t1 = 0.9 s, and t2 = 2 s, and
e) instantaneous accelerations at t1 = 0.9 s, and t2 = 2 s.

Solution:
a)
x1 at t = 0.9 s: 𝑥1 = −1.4 + 2.5 × 0.94 + 0.93 = 0.97 m
x2 at t = 2 s: 𝑥2 = −1.4 + 2.5 × 24 + 23 = 46.6 m
b)
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 46.6 − 0.97
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = = 41.48 m/s
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 2 − 0.9

19
c)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
First we calculate: 𝑣 = = (– 1.4 + 2.5 t4 + t3) = 2.5 × 4𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2 = 10𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
v1 at t = 0.9 s: 𝑣1 = 10 × 0.9 + 3 × 0.92 = 9.72 m/s
3

v2 at t = 2 s: 𝑣2 = 10 × 23 + 3 × 22 = 92 m/s

d)
∆𝑣 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 92 − 9.72
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = = 74.8m/s2
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 2 − 0.9

e)
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
We calculate: a = = (10𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2 ) = 10 × 3𝑡 2 + 3 × 2𝑡 = 30𝑡 2 + 6𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
a1 at t = 0.9 s: 𝑎1 = 30 × 0.9 + 6 × 0.9 = 24.3 m/s2
2

a2 at t = 2 s: 𝑎2 = 30 × 22 + 6 × 2 = 132 m/s2

20
 Exercise

• The velocity of a slowing car is given by the equation 𝑣 = −15 + 6𝑡 (v in meters per second and t in seconds). The
average acceleration from 𝑡 = 1𝑠 to 𝑡 = 5𝑠 is :
a) −9 𝑚/𝑠2 b) 1.5 𝑚/𝑠2 c) 6.0 𝑚/𝑠2. d) −6.0 𝑚/𝑠2
Constant Acceleration: A Special Case
• When an object is moving with a constant acceleration (this means
its velocity is changing but not its acceleration), in this case:
average acceleration = instantaneous acceleration
aavg = a

• We can describe this motion by a set of equations (equations of

motion with constant acceleration)

In these equations:
vo is the initial velocity
v is the final velocity
a is acceleration
t is time
xo is the initial position
x is the final position
 Example: A car starts moving from rest with a constant acceleration of 2
m/s2. how long does the car take to travel a distance of 200 m? b) what is
the car’s final velocity at this point?
Solution:
b) Now we know:
⸪ the car starts moving from rest ⟹ vo =
0 m/s vo = 0 m/s
a = 2 m/s2 a = 2 m/s2
x = 200 m x = 200 m
t=? t = 14.14 s
a) We can use the equation:
1 2
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 To calculate v we can use the equation:
2
1 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
200 = 0 × 𝑡 + × 2 × 𝑡 2
2 𝑣 = 0 + 2 × 14.14
200 = 0 + 𝑡 2 v = 28.28 m/s
𝑡 = 200 = 14.14 s
Example: A car moving with a uniform velocity of 15 m/s is brought to
rest in travelling a distance of 5 m. Calculate the deceleration produced
by brakes?
Solution:
⸪ the car is brought to rest ⟹ v = 0 m/s
vo = 15 m/s
x=5m
a=?
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 + 2𝑎𝑥
0 = 152 + 2 × 𝑎 × 5
0 = 225 + 10 𝑎
10 𝑎 = −225

225
𝑎=−
10
a = – 22.5 m/s2
The minus sign means that the can was slowing down (decelerating) as mentioned in the question.
Example: A particle moves in a straight line with a constant acceleration. It changes its
velocity from 20 m/s to 40 m/s while passing through a distance of 135 m in t second. Find
t?

Solution:

vo = 20 m/s
v= 40 m/s
x=135 m
t= ?
1
𝑥= 𝑣 + 𝑣0 t
2

2𝑥 2(135)
𝑡= = = 4.5 𝑠
𝑣 + 𝑣0 20 + 40
.

25
Free-Fall Acceleration
• If you eliminate the effects of air on its flight, you would find that the object
accelerates downward at a certain constant rate.

• That rate is called the free-fall acceleration, and its magnitude is constant and
represented by g
• g = 9.8 m/s2 the g value (acceleration) is constant.

⸪ we can use for free-falling motion the same equations of

y-axis
motion that we just learned, only with the following changes:
(1) The directions of motion is along a vertical y axis instead of x positive negative
axis, with the positive direction of y upward. direction direction
(positive v (negative v and
(2) The free-fall acceleration is negative because it is downward and positive y) negative y)
on the y-axis, toward Earth’s center and so it has the value Earth's surface
−g in the equations
When an object is moving under the affect of Earth’s gravity, we deal with it as a “falling”
object (in moving both upward and also downward). The only difference between “falling”
upward and falling downward is the signs of the velocity v and the distance y.

The equation of motion for a free-falling object are:

Equation of free falling
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 − g𝑡
1 2
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 )
1
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑣 𝑡
2
1 2
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡
2
Remember: when you substitute g in the equations, you use g = 9.8 m/s2 (do not put g = – 9.8 m/s2)
Example: A man throws a ball up along a y axis, with an initial speed of 12
m/s.
a) How long does the ball take to reach its maximum height?
b) What is the ball’s maximum height above its release point?
Solution:
a) At the maximum height, the ball b) We can use the equation:
stops (for a short period of time)
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 − 2𝑔𝑦
before falling back again
⟹ v = 0 m/s 02 = 122 − 2 × 9.8 × 𝑦
We have: 0 = 144 − 19.6 𝑦
vo = 12 m/s
g = 9.8 m/s2 −144
𝑦=
−19.6
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑔𝑡
y = 7.3 m
0 = 12 − 9.8 𝑡
−9.8 𝑡 = −12
−12
𝑡= = 1.22 s
−9.8
 Exercises
• A car initially at rest at a traffic light accelerates at 3 𝑚/𝑠2 when the light turns green.
What is the position of the car after 4 seconds ?
a) 12 𝑚 b) 6 𝑚 c) 24 𝑚 d) 13.3 𝑚
• To attain a height of 60 𝑚 a fireworks rocket should be launched (air resistance neglected) with an initial speed of :

a) 𝑣𝑜 = 24.2 𝑚/𝑠 b) 𝑣𝑜 = 11.4 𝑚/𝑠 c) 𝑣𝑜 = 1176 𝑚/𝑠 d) 𝑣𝑜 = 34.3 𝑚/𝑠

• A stone dropped with zero velocity from a river bridge, takes 2.71 𝑠 to reach the water surface. The height of the
bridge is :
a) ℎ = 40 𝑚 b) ℎ = 36 𝑚 c) ℎ = 52 𝑚 d) ℎ = 80 𝑚

• A ball is dropped from a window 60 𝑚 above the ground. When does the ball strike the ground (air resistance is
neglected:
a) 𝑡 = 0.1 𝑠 b) 𝑡 = 0.29 𝑠 c) 𝑡 = 12.2 𝑠 d) 𝑡 = 3.5 𝑠

• If air resistance is negligible, two objects of different masses falling from the same height reach the
ground at the same time.
a) 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 b) 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
Graphical representation of Motion Analysis
In many types of motion, we can represent the motion graphically. In this case, graphs of
position, velocity and acceleration with time could be roughly described as shown.

Position-Time graph shows that the object The velocity-Time graph shows that the velocity
is moving while time elapses increases constantly (straight line) with time

The acceleration-Time graph shows that the velocity increases

constantly with time, hence the acceleration is constant
 Graphical representation of Motion Analysis
This example shows a journey of a bus traveling between two stops.
Position-Time Graph Analysis
1. Bus is stopping for one second
2. It then starts moving, and its position changes with time.
3. At “b”, the bus travels equal distances in equal time.
4. At “c”, the bus prepares to stop, before stopping completely at “d”
Velocity-Time Graph Analysis
1. the bus has a velocity=0 for one second
2. It then starts moving, and its velocity increases with time.
3. At “b”, to “c”, the bus travels with a constant velocity.
4. At “c”, the bus is reducing velocity, before stopping
completely at “d”
Acceleration-Time Graph Analysis
1. the bus has an acceleration =0 for one second
2. In the time between t = 1 and 3, the bus has +ve acceleration.
3. At “b”, to “c”, the bus has an acceleration = 0.
4. At “c”, the bus has negative acceleration
5. the bus has “zero” acceleration at “d”