364 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 26, NO.

1, MARCH 2011

Reactive Power Capability of Wind Turbines Based

on Doubly Fed Induction Generators
Stephan Engelhardt, Member, IEEE, Istvan Erlich, Senior Member, IEEE, Christian Feltes, Member, IEEE,
Jörg Kretschmann, and Fekadu Shewarega, Member, IEEE

Abstract—With the increasing penetration of wind turbines w12 Effective winding ratio between stator and
(WTs) grid utilities require extended reactive power supply ca- rotor.
pability not only during voltage dips but also in steady-state oper- ψS , ψR Complex stator and rotor flux linkages.
ation. WTs with doubly fed induction generators (DFIG) are able
to control active and reactive power independently. The reactive ωR , ωS Rotor angular speed, stator angular speed.
power capability is subject to several limitations resulting from ∗ Conjugate complex vector (superscript).
the voltage, current, and speed, which change with the operating
point. This paper discusses the steady-state reactive power loading
I. INTRODUCTION
capability of DFIG-based WTs by taking into account the most im-
portant physical phenomena restricting the reactive power supply IND power has established itself as one of the most im-
of DFIG-based WT systems. The active–reactive power diagram
is systematically derived by considering the typical power–speed
relationship and converter loading limits. The authors discuss also
W portant renewable energy source over the past decades.
With the priority status accorded to it in many countries, the
some special operating modes limiting the reactive power capabil- share of wind power in relation to the overall installed capacity
ity together with aspects of modeling and control that give rise to has increased significantly and this trend is in all likelihood set
these limitations. to continue. In some countries, the share of wind in relation to
Index Terms—Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), power the overall installed capacity is already approaching the 50%
conversion, reactive power, voltage support, wind power, wind mark. The increased prominence of wind in the generation mix
turbine. inevitably leads to the question of its role in the provision of
ancillary services, the most important of which being reactive
NOMENCLATURE power supply in support of grid voltage.
Some utilities, as can be seen in the latest edition of grid codes
MSC Machine side converter. [1], require more stringent operational regimes resembling more
LSC Line side converter. and more the operational chart of conventional generators in
s Slip. terms of real and reactive power settings. In other words, wind
lm Main-field inductance; as per unit (p.u.) quan- turbines (WTs) have to contribute not only to active power
tity, it corresponds with the reactance xm . generation but also to the provision of reactive power. Modern
lσ S , l σ R Stator and rotor leakage inductances; as per WT by virtue of the modern power electronic converters that
unit quantities, they correspond with the reac- come with them are able to control active and reactive power
tances xσ S , xσ R . independently of one another. Accordingly, maintaining any
iS , iR Complex stator and rotor currents. prescribed operating point is not a problem in itself. But the
iM S C , iL S C Complex machine side and line side converter reactive power capability requires extended design features that
currents. come at a higher initial cost, which must pay off in terms of
rS , rR Stator and rotor resistances. commensurate operational benefits.
p, q Active and reactive power. This paper sets itself the task of analyzing the limits of steady-
tel Electrical torque. state reactive power generation capability for a typical WT sys-
udc Converter dc-link voltage. tem using the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG). Parame-
uS , uR Complex stator and rotor terminal voltages. ters of the machine and the control system are based on manu-
facturer data, and the simulation results are intended to reflect
the existing reality as accurately as possible. DFIG-based WT
are more popular on account of their favorable cost/performance
Manuscript received December 27, 2009; revised March 21, 2010; accepted attribute resulting primarily from the need for a much smaller
May 9, 2010. Date of publication October 28, 2010; date of current version
February 18, 2011. Paper no. TEC-00540-2009. converter rating compared to the machine rating. In steady-state
S. Engelhardt and J. Kretschmann are with Woodward SEG GmbH operation, the reactive power output of the machine should ide-
and Company KG, 47906 Kempen, Germany (e-mail: stephan.engelhardt@ ally be in tune to the changing voltage situation in the network
woodward.com; joerg.kretschmann@woodward.com).
I. Erlich, C. Feltes, and F. Shewarega are with the University as dictated by the actual load flow configuration. WT controllers
Duisburg-Essen, 47057 Duisburg, Germany (e-mail: istvan.erlich@uni-due.de; are able to react very fast and meeting even the dynamic require-
christian.feltes@uni-due.de; fekadu.shewarega@uni-due.de). ments (let alone the slow changes occurring in steady state) is not
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. challenging. However, if the WT is to supply reactive power on a
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2010.2081365 continuous basis just like conventional synchronous generators,
0885-8969/$26.00 © 2010 IEEE
ENGELHARDT et al.: REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY OF WIND TURBINES BASED ON DOUBLY FED INDUCTION GENERATORS 365

TABLE I
DATA OF CURRENTLY INSTALLED TYPICAL WT

Fig. 1. DFIG WT system.

important physical phenomena presenting themselves as con-

straints need to be considered. For this purpose, first the
active versus reactive power diagram of the machine will be
derived systematically by taking into account typical power–
speed ranges and converter loading. This will be followed by
simulation results revealing some special operating modes lim-
iting the reactive power capability of DFIG-based WT.
Fig. 2. Typical power curve of WT.

II. DFIG-BASED WIND TURBINES

availability due to the compact design with a minimum number
The DFIG employed as multimegawatt WT generators has
of components.
now a history of more than 20 years. Developments in insulated
Moreover, reactive power control can be implemented at
gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) technology and the know-how
lower cost because the DFIG system (four-quadrant converter
and experience acquired as a result of the steady growth in
and induction machine) basically operates similar to a syn-
number and size of the international WT market has made the
chronous generator. The converter has to provide only excitation
development of commercially successful WT in the range of
energy [3].
6–7 MW capacity possible.
Table I summarizes typical operational ranges for a modern
The functional principle of this type of variable speed gener-
DFIG-based wind generation system.
ator is based on the DFIG in combination with a four-quadrant
ac-to-ac frequency converter equipped with IGBT technology
(see Fig. 1). III. GENERATED ACTIVE POWER
The system ensures efficient power conversion due to variable
In steady state, active power output that varies with wind
rotor speed, which adjusts itself automatically in accordance
conditions has priority over reactive power output, and a specific
with prevailing wind speeds. Speed variability is made possible
maximum power is associated with each rotational speed given
by the directionally dependent transfer of slip power via the
by a typical characteristic curve of the blades. This value must
frequency converter, which changes as follows:
not be exceeded due to design reasons (see Fig. 2). The speed
1) In the subsynchronous operating mode (partial load
band above rated speed (red dotted line) is used in control action
range), the stator of the DFIG supplies power to the grid
only dynamically for smoothing the power output during wind
and also the slip power to the rotor via the slip rings and
gusts. Also, a short reverse load (motor operation) is allowed
the frequency converter.
to avoid unnecessary shut down of WT (dotted green line).
2) In the supersynchronous operating mode (nominal load
However, this operation mode is not considered further in this
range), both the stator output power and the rotor slip
paper.
power are fed in to the grid.
Neglecting all losses in a first step, the active power delivered
At full load, the active power passing through the converter
to the rotor by the converter, and the mechanical power at the
amounts to roughly 25% of total power, while the speed range
shaft of the generator can be calculated as follows [2]:
is +/−33% around the synchronous speed. Cost of the inverter
and filters are thus smaller compared to a full-sized converter
pR = −spS (1)
system. Advantages of the system include, in addition to low
losses (a high overall efficiency), an outstanding operational pm ech = (1 − s)pS (2)
366 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 26, NO. 1, MARCH 2011

Fig. 4. Equivalent circuit of a DFIG and LSC.

Fig. 3. Active power sharing between DFIG and LSC.
TABLE II
TYPICAL DFIG PARAMETERS
The rotor power is transferred via the LSC into the grid.
pLSC = pR (3)
pW T = pS + pLSC = pm ech . (4)
The contribution of the stator and the LSC toward active
power supply is shown in Fig. 3
In this paper, the total WT active power has been used as a
base value for normalization. This includes the stator power and
the power passed through the LSC. In the example shown here,
TABLE III
the stator supplies 0.83 p.u. (per unit) and the LSC 0.17 p.u. TYPICAL CURRENT RATINGS
power at the nominal operating point. It is worth mentioning
that the stator of DFIG is not designed for the full WT power
(1.0 p.u.).

IV. ACTIVE–REACTIVE CURRENT LIMITATION

A. Basic Relationships
Parameters for this demonstration example, which can be
To calculate the reactive current capability, by considering considered as a typical DFIG system, are given in Table II.
the voltage and current limitations of the converter and DFIG, From these data, any of the desired rated current values can
the relevant system equations must be taken into account. be derived using (5)–(8) above by considering the nominal sta-
The system of equations in steady state after neglecting iron tor voltage and maximum power factor, which is assumed to
losses is [4]: be 0.9 overexcited in this case. Typical values are shown in
uS = −rS iS − jωS ψ S (5) Table III, which are also used in the demonstration examples in
the following sections.
uR = −rR iR − j (ωS − ωR ) ψ R (6) For the calculation of the MSC current in SI units, it is im-
ψ S = lσ S iS + lm (iS + iR ) (7) portant to take into account the effective winding ratio between
stator and rotor w12 .
ψ R = lσ R iR + lm (iS + iR ) (8) Sometimes reactive current sharing between MSC and LSC
  is employed to realize a smaller DFIG design by reducing the
tel = −Im ψ S i∗S . (9) rated rotor current values. However, this benefit could be offset
The corresponding voltage equation for the loop containing since the additional reactive current requirement for the LSC is
the LSC is: normally 2–3 times higher than the reduction in MSC reactive
current rating due to the winding ratio. In this example, the
uLSC = (rLSC + jωS lLSC ) iLSC + uS . (10) rating for the LSC is based only on active current requirements.
According to Fig. 1, the grid current at the secondary winding
of the WT transformer is then defined as: B. Active–Reactive Current Capability of DFIG
Fig. 5 shows the reactive current capability of the DFIG alone
iN = iS + iLSC . (11)
(generator without the converter) and also without taking losses
The equivalent circuits of DFIG and LSC are shown in Fig. 4. and additional limitations into account.
ENGELHARDT et al.: REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY OF WIND TURBINES BASED ON DOUBLY FED INDUCTION GENERATORS 367

Fig. 6. LSC current capability as a function of stator active current.

Fig. 5. DFIG active–reactive current capability diagram.

The red solid line, a semicircle with the midpoint at the origin,
represents the stator current heating limit. The dotted green line
shows the stator current limit, if the rotor current is not to exceed
the rated value. For the correct calculation of the magnetizing
current (the difference between rotor and stator currents), it is
necessary to consider the voltage drop over the equivalent circuit
elements, as shown in Fig. 4. The blue dashed vertical line
represents the maximum stator active current corresponding to
the rated stator active power. These boundaries in combination
result in a machine capability curve, as shown in Fig. 5 on
the right-hand side. Up to this point, copper and iron losses as
well as additional limitations are not considered. The necessary
Fig. 7 Reactive current capability at nominal voltage as a function of active
extension to take these factors into account will be discussed in current.
Section IV-E.
D. Combined Active–Reactive Current Capability
C. Active–Reactive Current Capability of LSC
Fig. 7 shows the combined reactive current capability of the
As the LSC has to supply the slip power, the active current stator and the LSC as a function of WT active current deduced
through the LSC is determined by the machine operating point. from discussions in the preceding sections. Note that up to this
The maximum possible reactive current, however, can be varied point losses and other factors presenting themselves as addi-
up to the limit set by the total rated current in accordance with: tional limiting factors are not considered.

iLSC,reactive available = i2LSC,rated − i2LSC,active . (12)
E. Additional Limiting Aspects
During operation in the dynamic speed band in periods of A more accurate reactive power capability chart should con-
high wind speed, the maximum reactive current capability is sider some other important aspects, such as system losses, speed
smaller due to the high active current. Considering the physical variation, means of filtering, effect of magnetic saturation in the
mechanism for power sharing between the stator and the LSC, main flux path, and output voltage limitation of the converter.
as shown in Fig. 3, and taking (12) into account, the relation- 1) Losses: In this paper, only the machine and converter
ship between stator active current and the LSC current can be losses are taken into account. Losses in feeder cables, auxiliary
determined. For typical WT used as example in this paper, the components, and drives are neglected. Copper and iron losses
resulting characteristic curves are plotted in Fig. 6. At the right are modeled in the manner shown in the equivalent circuit in
edge of the curves, the short-term dynamic overload area of LSC Fig. 4. Combined stator and rotor copper losses lie in the range
is indicated. of 1%–2% of machine rating at nominal current. The iron losses
368 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 26, NO. 1, MARCH 2011

Fig. 10. MSC current rating in relation to frequency at constant maximum

junction temperature.

Fig. 8. Effect of losses on reactive current capability of the DFIG and its LSC
at nominal voltage; (R): without losses and additional limitations at nominal
voltage.

Fig. 9. Frequency of induced rotor voltage in relation to rotor speed.

Fig. 11. Reactive current capability with current derating around synchronous
speed considered; (R): without losses and additional limitations at nominal
voltage.
are typically in the range of 0.4%–0.6% and are almost inde-
pendent of loading (assuming the voltage remains around the
rated value). The converter steady state and switching losses are derating of the converter is necessary at these low frequencies
significant and can be modeled as given in [5]. Also, losses in to maintain the maximum junction temperature of the IGBTs at
the dc-link and the filter choke can be considered. Converter about the same level as at the rated speed (see Fig. 10).
losses are about 3%–4% of the power transferred through the This effect could be compensated by using a higher rating for
converter. Fig. 8 demonstrates the effect of losses on the active– the converter or reducing the risk margin, which in most cases
reactive current diagram. It is interesting to note that the total is impractical.
power capability of WT does not change. A more sophisticated approach would be to lower the switch-
2) Influence of Speed Variation on Rotor Current Rating: ing frequency or adjust the modulation method for these op-
The MSC control maintains constant frequency at the stator erating points. Certainly, effects on power quality have to be
terminals at variable speed by imposing a rotor voltage with slip considered, and the grid filter has to be tuned properly.
frequency. The rotor voltage frequency in relation to the shaft A DFIG with natural cooling via a shaft fan could require
speed at nominal grid frequency is shown in Fig. 9. A negative a derating of machine currents at lower speeds. With forced
frequency implies supersynchronous operation mode. external cooling, this effect could be reduced. The effect of the
For converter systems using standard pulse width modula- derating of machine currents around the synchronous speed is
tion (PWM) and constant switching frequency, the transient shown in Fig. 11.
impedance of the converter cooling circuit has to be taken into 3) Filter: To improve the power quality of the converter, a
account for rotor frequencies lower than 0.1 p.u. These effects filter is installed at the grid side. The filter is normally a com-
are presented in detail in [5] and [6], showing that a current bination of capacitors and inductors to selectively reduce the
ENGELHARDT et al.: REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY OF WIND TURBINES BASED ON DOUBLY FED INDUCTION GENERATORS 369

Fig. 12. Equivalent circuit of LSC with filter.

Fig. 14. Magnetization characteristic of DFIG.

Fig. 13. Effect of LSC filter on reactive current capability; (R): without losses
and additional limitations at nominal voltage.

converter harmonics due to the switching actions in the semi-

conductors. Regarding the reactive current at the fundamental
frequency, the filter can be modeled using a simple capacitor
since the inductive filter components can be neglected at grid Fig. 15. Effect of saturation on reactive current capability; (R): without losses
frequency. For a typical DFIG system, the additional capacitive and additional limitations at nominal voltage.
(overexcited) current of the filter is about 0.03 p.u.
The influence on reactive current capability can be calculated
using the equivalent circuit, as shown in Fig. 12
Fig. 13 shows the effect of LSC filter on the reactive current
capability. reactive current diagram with saturation effect considered is
4) Saturation of the DFIG Main Flux Path: For a more ac- plotted in Fig. 15
curate calculation of the system boundaries, the saturation of the 5) Converter Output Voltage Limitation: The maximum dc-
main flux path of the DFIG should also be taken into account. link voltage limits the output voltage of the converter. For the
The generator is normally operated in a partial saturation range LSC, the maximum output voltage with linear modulation and
even at nominal voltage on weight, space, and cost grounds. common dc-voltage ratings is about 1.1 p.u. This means that the
A typical saturation curve for the relevant range is shown in reactive current capability of the LSC is limited above a certain
Fig. 14. threshold of the stator voltage. This relationship is shown in
Overexcited mode implies that the main flux is increased, Fig. 16.
and that additional reactive rotor current is needed to supply a At synchronous speed, the LSC active current is nearly zero,
given reactive stator current (in comparison with the case where and therefore, the reactive current capability is slightly higher
saturation is neglected). In this mode of operation, the rotor than that at the rated speed. Fig. 17 shows the active–reactive
current is the limiting variable, as shown in Section A. Therefore, current diagram at 1.06 p.u. LSC voltage.
the maximum stator reactive current in the overexcited mode is For the MSC, the output voltage is proportional to slip [2]. A
lower when core saturation is considered. In underexcited mode, reduction of reactive current due to the limited dc-link voltage
the stator current is the limiting variable; therefore, the saturation at rated grid frequency is normally not necessary with typical
has no influence on the reactive current capability. The active– system parameters.
370 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 26, NO. 1, MARCH 2011

Fig. 16. Max. reactive LSC current in relation to stator voltage.

Fig. 18. Reactive power capability versus rotor speed with optimal PWM at
nominal voltage.

Fig. 17. Reactive current capability of DFIG and LSC at 1.06 p.u. LSC voltage;
(R): without losses and additional limitations at nominal voltage.

V. REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY

Equations for power output are derived from (5)–(11) taking
Fig. 19. Reactive power capability of DFIG-WT versus active power with
into account the aspects discussed in the preceding chapters. optimal PWM at nominal voltage.
pW TG = Re { uS i∗S } + Re { uLSC i∗LSC } . (13)
qW TG = Im { uS i∗S } + Im { uLSC i∗LSC } + qfilter . (14) limitations in the MSC current impose a limit on the overexcited
reactive power output.
qfilter = ωS cfilter u2S . (15) If the low wind situation causes the WT to be switched off,
The active power of the LSC can be calculated from the rotor the LSC can, in principle, still feed reactive power up to its
power, considering the converter losses (according to the sign rated value, which is 0.21 p.u. in this example. To enable such
convention used in this paper losses are negative). a standby operation, LSC must stay connected to the grid even
if the generator is separated.
Re { uLSC i∗LSC } = Re { uR i∗R } + ploss . (16)
Fig. 18 shows the reactive power capability of a WT with the VI. CONSIDERING BOUNDARIES IN WT
aforementioned characteristic parameters in relation to speed MODELING AND CONTROL
with all limitations discussed in the previous sections consid- The active–reactive power diagrams developed in the pre-
ered. In this diagram also the dynamic overload area is included. vious sections can be used in wind farm design to clarify the
Fig. 19 shows reactive power versus active power character- contribution of WT to reactive power generation required by
istic by considering the relationship between active power and grid codes. Additional reactive power sources may be necessary
speed in accordance with Fig. 2. Around the synchronous point if the transport of reactive power from the WT to the grid leads
ENGELHARDT et al.: REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY OF WIND TURBINES BASED ON DOUBLY FED INDUCTION GENERATORS 371

iting factor, whereupon the corresponding rotor current limit

can be determined based on the equivalent circuit, as shown in
Fig. 4. The rotor currents consist of active and reactive com-
ponents. Reduction of one component may be enough to limit
the current magnitude, and therefore, the priority must be de-
fined beforehand. The LSC has always-active current priority,
because it has to guarantee power balance in the dc-link. In nor-
mal mode, the MSC is also set to prioritize active current but
below a certain threshold it switches to reactive current priority.
It means that the active current is reduced first, and the reactive
current kept unchanged when the magnitude exceeds the limit.
The reactive current is required to comply with grid codes when
the voltage drops below a certain limit.
In both the MSC and LSC models, the output voltage, which
is produced by the converter, is limited. In reality, the limitation
relates the modulation index. When the rotor voltage exceeds the
limit (implying overmodulation), the reactive current controller
Fig. 20. MSC current control loops.
is stopped or reset and thus the voltage magnitude is limited.

VII. CONCLUSION
The DFIG-based WT systems can adjust active and reactive
power output independently. The active power output is nor-
mally determined by wind conditions. For the determination
of reactive power capability for a given active power output, a
number of system boundaries have to be considered. Limitations
with regard to generator and converter currents, voltages as well
as nonlinear relationships between junction temperature and ro-
tor current frequency as well as magnetic flux saturation have
to be considered. At higher and gusty wind conditions, opera-
tion in the dynamic speed range could demand lower reactive
power output due to increased active power output. This pa-
per showed typical reactive power characteristics for a standard
design taking all these factors into consideration.
An additional issue of interest is the fact that sometimes
WT run in a reduced noise operation mode. The reduction in
Fig. 21. LSC current control loops. noise emission is realized by lowering the speed band, which
moves the operating speed nearer to the synchronism point,
where a current reduction is required. Further restriction may
to high voltage drops and thus reactive losses in the lines. Also,
be necessitated by low grid frequency. Low frequency implies
lack of fault-ride through (FRT) capability by WT may neces-
large slip, and thus large rotor voltage, which, however, may not
sitate using separate reactive sources like STATCOM installed
be possible to realize due to the dc-link voltage limitation.
close to the grid connection point. It should also be mentioned
that often manufacturers publish more restrictive active–reactive
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Source IGBT Converter), TU Ilmenau, 1997, Verlag ISLE, Ilmenau, 1997, Christian Feltes (S’07–M’09) was born in 1979. He
ISBN 3–932633-09–1. received the Dipl.-Ing. degree in electrical engineer-
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H. Wrede, “Modeling of wind turbines based on doubly-fed induction Germany, in 2005, where he has been working toward
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[8] S. Engelhardt, C. Feltes, J. Fortmann, J. Kretschmann, and I. Erlich, His current research interests include wind energy
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on Large-Scale Integration of Wind Power into Power Systems As Well As
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[9] C. Feltes, H. Wrede, F. W. Koch, and I. Erlich, “Enhanced fault ridde-
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HVDC transmission,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 1537–
1546, Aug. 2009.
Jörg Kretschmann was born in 1958. He received
the Dipl.-Ing. degree in electrical engineering from
the Technical University Berlin, Berlin, Germany, in
1986.
During 1986–1988, he was with the Engineering
Department, AEG-Kanis, Essen, Germany, manufac-
Stephan Engelhardt (M’07) was born in 1967. turing of synchronous generators up to 200 MVA.
He received the Dipl.-Ing. degree in electrical en- Since 1988, he has been with Woodward SEG GmbH
gineering from the University Hannover, Hannover, and Company KG, Kempen, Germany, as a Design-
Germany, in 1997. ing Engineer for speed-variable applications: unin-
Since 1997, he has been with Woodward SEG terruptible power supply, shaft alternators, doubly
GmbH and Company KG, Kempen, Germany, where fed induction generators for wind turbines. His current research interests in-
he is currently a Team Leader of power conver- clude simulation of power converter systems, design of power components, and
sion/converter technology and responsible for sys- passive grid filter.
tem designs and simulations, control strategies and
patents.

Fekadu Shewarega (M’08) was born in 1956. He re-

ceived the Dipl.-Ing. degree in electrical engineering
Istvan Erlich (M’99–SM’06) was born in 1953. and the Ph.D. degree from the Technical University
He received the Dipl.-Ing. degree in electrical en- of Dresden, Dresden, Germany, in 1985 and 1988,
gineering and the Ph.D. degree from the University respectively.
of Dresden, Dresden, Germany, in 1976 and 1983, He was with Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, as
respectively. a member of the academic staff, where he served
After his studies, he worked in Hungary and en- in various capacities. He is currently member of
gaged in research on electrical distribution networks. the research staff at the University Duisburg-Essen,
From 1979 to 1991, he was with the Department Duisburg, Germany. His research interests in-
of Electrical Power Systems, University of Dresden. clude power system analysis and renewable energy
During 1991–1998, he was with the consulting com- technologies.
pany EAB in Berlin and the Fraunhofer Institute IITB
Dresden, respectively. During this time, he also had a teaching assignment at the
University of Dresden. Since 1998, he has been a Professor and the Head of the
Institute of Electrical Power Systems, University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg,
Germany. His current research interests include power system stability and con-
trol, modeling and simulation of power system dynamics including intelligent
system applications.
Prof. Erlich is a member of VDE.