Module-1 Research Methodology

Introduction: The word research is composed of two syllables “Re” and “Search”. “Re” is the
prefix meaning ‘Again or over again or a new’ and “Search” is the latter meaning ‘to examine
closely and carefully’ or ‘to test and try’. Together they form, a careful, systematic, patient study
and investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken to establish principles / policies.
Meaning of Research: Research can be defined as
1. Search for knowledge
2. Systematic and scientific search for getting relevant answers on any taken up specific topic.
3. Scientific enquiry into a subject.
4. Research is a movement from the unknown to the known.
5. It is the voyage of discovery
Clifford Woody - Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis
or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulated hypothesis.
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as "the
manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing, to extend, correct or
verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice“.

Bulmer- Research is primarily committed to establishing systematic, reliable and valid knowledge
about the social world.
Thus research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method for finding
solution to a problem.
Objectives of Research: The objective of research is to find answers to the questions by applying
scientific procedures. In other words, the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and has not yet been discovered. Although every research study has its own specific
objectives, the research objectives may be broadly grouped as follows:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory or
formulative research studies)
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(descriptive research studies)
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (diagnostic research studies)
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing research
studies)

Motivation in Research: The intention of doing research may be one or more of the following:
1. Get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
2. Face the challenges in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems
initiates research
3. Intellectual joy of doing some creative work
4. Service to society
5. Get respect.
Factors like directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire
to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well
motivate people to carry research.
Types of Research:
1. Descriptive Vs Analytical Research
Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different types. The main
objective of descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it prevails at the time of study.
The term ‘ex post facto research‘ is quite often used for descriptive research studies in social
sciences and business research. The most distinguishing feature of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables here. He/she has to only report what is happening or
what has happened. Majority of the ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies
in which the researcher attempts to examine phenomena, such as the consumers‘ preferences,
frequency of purchases, shopping, etc. Despite the inability of the researchers to control the
variables, ex post facto studies may also comprise attempts by them to discover the causes of the
selected problem. The methods of research adopted in conducting descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including correlational and comparative methods. Meanwhile in the
Analytical research, the researcher has to use the already available facts or information, and
analyze them to make a critical evaluation of the subject.
Descriptive is fact finding to describe the state of affairs
Analytical Research is using already available information and analyse to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
2. Applied Vs Fundamental Research
An attempt to find a solution to an immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a
business organization, or the society is known as applied research. Researchers engaged in such
researches aim at drawing certain conclusions confronting a concrete social or business problem
Fundamental research mainly concerns generalizations and formulation of a theory. In other
words, ―Gathering knowledge for knowledge‘s sake is termed pure or basic research (Young in
Kothari, 1988). Researches relating to pure mathematics or concerning some natural phenomenon
are instances of Fundamental Research. Likewise, studies focusing on human behaviour also fall
under the category of fundamental research.
Applied aims at finding a solution to the problem faced by the society/ organisation.
Fundamental Research is concerned with generalization and formulation of a theory
3. Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in terms of
quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. Various available statistical and
econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research. Which includes correlation,
regressions and time series analysis etc
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, or more specifically, the aspects
related to or involving quality or kind. For example, an important type of qualitative research is
Motivation Research‘, which investigates into the reasons for certain human behavior. The main
aim of this type of research is discovering the underlying motives and desires of in-depth
interviews. The other techniques employed in such research are story completion tests, sentence
completion tests, word association tests, and other similar projective methods. Qualitative research
is particularly significant in the context of behavioral sciences, which aim at discovering the
underlying motives of human behaviour.
Quantitative research is based on quantitative measurements of some characteristics
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phemomenon
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical
The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as Conceptual Research. Generally,
philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for reinterpreting the existing
ones.
Empirical Research, on the other hand, exclusively relies on the observation or experience with
hardly any regard for theory and system. Such research is data based, which often comes up with
conclusions that can be verified through experiments or observation. Empirical research is also
known as experimental type of research, in which it is important to first collect the facts and their
sources, and actively take steps to stimulate the production of desired information. In this type of
research, the researcher first formulates a working hypothesis, and then gathers sufficient facts to
prove or disprove the stated hypothesis. He/she formulates the experimental design, which
according to him/her would manipulate the variables, so as to obtain the desired information.
The results obtained by using the experimental or empirical studies are considered to be the most
powerful evidences for a given hypothesis.
Conceptual research is related to some abstract ideas
Empirical research is data based research which relies on observation or experience.
5. Some other types of research

• one-time research or longitudinal research- depends upon the time of doing research
• field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research- depends upon the
environment in which research is carried on.
• clinical or diagnostic research- in-depth approaches or case study method may be
employed to analyse the basic causal relations
• Exploratory research- consist of substantial structure and specific hypotheses to be
verified
• Historical Research- sources like historical documents, remains, etc. Are utilized to study
past events or ideas.
Research Approaches: The above description of the types of research shows that there are two
basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach.
Quantitative approach can be further sub-classified into
Inferential research - inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer
characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a sample
of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then
inferred that the population has the same characteristics
Experimental research- characterized by much greater control over the research environment and
in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables
Simulation research- Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment
within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the
dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions
Qualitative approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form
which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group
interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used.
Significance of Research:
➢ Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking.
➢ Research provides the basis for all government policies in our economic system.
➢ Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems
of business and industry
➢ Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems.
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism
or a way to attain a high position in the social structure
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative
work
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.
Research Methods versus Methodology:
Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction
of research. Research methods or techniques thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood
as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that
are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind
them

Research Method Research methodology

Research methods refers to all those Research methodology is a way to systematically

methods/techniques that are used for conduction solve the research problem.
of research. Research methods or techniques
The scope of research methodology is wider than
that of research methods

It involves conduction of experiments, tests, Techniques that can be used to conduct the
surveys etc experiments, tests etc

Aims at finding a solution to the research Aims at employment of correct procedure to find
problem the solution

Research and Scientific Method:

The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we have already
stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of
any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than
particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more
complicated and general situations.”
The philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although they may vary
considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific method.
Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that
method is the method of all logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in
its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their
mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of
science.”
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of
science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
The scientific method is, based on the following basic postulates:
1. It relies on empirical evidence
2. It utilizes relevant concepts
3. It is committed to only objective considerations
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct
statements about population objects
5. It results into probabilistic predictions
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing the
conclusions through replication
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories
Scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from
personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable
of being verified, a method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a
method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal
consistency
Importance of Knowing How Research is Done:
The importance of knowing how to conduct research are listed below:
➢ The knowledge of research methodology provides training to new researchers and enables
them to do research properly. It helps them to develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of
mind‘ to objectively observe the field
➢ The knowledge of doing research inculcates the ability to evaluate and utilize the research
findings with confidence;
➢ The knowledge of research methodology equips the researcher with the tools that help
him/her to make the observations objectively and
➢ The knowledge of methodology helps the research consumers to evaluate research and
make rational decisions.
Research Process:
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps. The following Figure well illustrates a research process.

The various steps in a research process are as follows:

(1) formulating the research problem
(2) extensive literature survey
(3) developing the hypothesis
(4) preparing the research design
(5) determining sample design
(6) collecting the data
(7) execution of the project
(8) analysis of data
(9) hypothesis testing
(10) generalisations and interpretation
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.
(1) Formulating a Research problem: In research process, the first step a researcher does is
formulate a problem and define it properly. Research forms a circle. It starts with a problem and
ends with a solution to the problem.
A research problem is anything that a researcher finds unsatisfactory or unsettling, a difficulty of
some sort, a state of affairs that needs to be changed, anything that is not working well as it was
expected (Creswell, 2009)
A problem statement consists of four parts:
➢ the ideal
➢ the reality or real situation
➢ the consequences or impacts,
➢ what the study wants to address or the aim of the study.
(2) Extensive Literature Survey: abstracting and indexing Journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc.
(3) Development of Working Hypothesis: A tentative assumption made to test its logical or
empirical consequences. The role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area
and keep him on right track
Steps to develop a working hypothesis:
➢ Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution
➢ Examination of data and records,
➢ Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems
➢ Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals.
(4) Prepare the Research Design: state the conceptual structure within which Research will be
conducted
Several research designs- Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis testing.
Experimental design can be either informal or formal

(5) Determining Sample Design:

Census Survey, Sample Survey
Types of Sampling
➢ Deliberate sampling
➢ Simple random sampling
➢ Systematic sampling
➢ Stratified sampling
➢ Quota sampling
➢ Cluster sampling and area sampling
➢ Multi-stage sampling
➢ Sequential sampling
(6) Data Collection:
➢ Observation
➢ Personal Interview
➢ Telephone Interview
➢ Questionaires
➢ Schedules

(7) Execution of the Project: In a systematic manner and time

(8) Analysis of Data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such
as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
(9) Hypothesis Testing: Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed
by statisticians for testing the hypotheis. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or
more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing
will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
(10) Generalization and Interpretations: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times,
researcher may arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of
research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.
If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis
of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
(11) Report or thesis writing:
(a) layout
• Preliminary pages
• Main text
• End matter
(b) concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’
‘there may be’, and the like.
(c) Charts and illustrations should be used only if they present the information more clearly and
forcibly.
(d) various constraints experienced in conducting research operations must be mentioned.
Criteria of Good Research: Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing
that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by
them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria.
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
 2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained. 3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that areas objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods
of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken
in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic
of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing
and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of
reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical
reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research
results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Problems Encountered by Researchers in India:
Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several problems.
Some of the important problems are as follows:
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for
researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers take a
leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes in the name of
research is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and even to their guides, is
mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the collated materials. The consequence
is obvious, viz., the research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities. Thus, a
systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before undertaking research
projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects. As such, efforts
should be made to provide short duration intensive courses for meeting this requirement.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and
business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other side. A
great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remains untouched/untreated by the
researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison
among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing some
mechanisms of a university—industry interaction program so that academics can get ideas from
practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the research done by the
academics.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied
by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the
needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to business
organizations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable barrier to researchers. Thus,
there is the need for generating the confidence that thein formation/data obtained from a business
unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be solved by
proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the places
where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward identification of research
problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to the
industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code of
conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of
research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial assistance
is made available to researchers and that too well in time. University Grants Commission must
play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the time
and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc., rather than in
tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new
Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem is felt more in
libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus efforts should be made
for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government and
other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on account of the
fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences in coverage by the
concerning agencies.
10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to
the process of data collection and related things
Defining the Research Problem:
Research Problem:
The first and foremost stage in the research process is to select and properly define the research
problem. A researcher should first identify a problem and formulate it, so as to make it amenable
or susceptible to research. In general, a research problem refers to an unanswered question that a
researcher might encounter in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation, which he/she
would like to answer or find a solution to. A research problem is generally said to exist if the
following conditions emerge (Kothari, 1988):
i. There should be an individual or an organization, say X, to whom the Problem can be attributed.
The individual or the organization is situated in an environment Y, which is governed by certain
uncontrolled variables Z
ii. There should be at least two courses of action to be pursued, say A1 and A2. These courses of
action are defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the number of
items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action.
iii. There should be at least two alternative possible outcomes of the said courses of action, say B1
and B2. Of them, one alternative should be preferable to the other. That is, at least one outcome
should be what the researcher wants, which becomes an objective.
iv. The courses of possible action available must offer a chance to the researcher to achieve the
objective, but not the equal chance. Therefore, if P(Bj / X, A, Y) 10 represents the probability of
the occurrence of an outcome Bj when X selects Aj in Y, then P(B1 / X, A1,Y) ≠ P (B1 / X, A2,
Y). Putting it in simple words, it means that the choices must not have equal efficiencies for the
desired outcome.
Above all these conditions, the individual or organization may be said to have arrived at the
research problem only if X does not know what course of action to be taken is the best. In other
words, X should have a doubt about the solution. Thus, an individual or a group of persons can be
said to have a problem if they have more than one desired outcome. They should have two or more
alternative courses of action, which have some but not equal efficiency. This is required for
probing the desired objectives, such that they have doubts about the best course of action to be
taken. Thus, the components of a research problem may be summarized as:
a) There should be an individual or a group who have some difficulty or problem.
b) There should be some objective(s) to be pursued. A person or an organization who wants
nothing cannot have a problem.
c) There should be alternative ways of pursuing the objective the researcher wants to pursue. This
implies that there should be more than one alternative means available to the researcher. This is
because if the researcher has no choice of alternative means, he/she would not have a problem.
d) There should be some doubt in the mind of the researcher about the choice of alternative means.
This implies that research should answer the question relating to the relative efficiency or
suitability of the possible alternatives.
Selecting the Problem:
Criteria for selection of research problem depend on the following characteristics.
• Personal Inclination.
• Resources Availability.
• Relative Importance.

• Researcher Knowledge
• Practicality: Practicality is also responsible for the selection.
• Time-lines of the Problem.

• Urgency.
Personal Inclination: The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the personal
inclination of the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he would select that
problem for his research work
Resources Availability: During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources available. If
these resources like money, time, accommodation and transport are available to the selection place,
then the selection of the problem is easy.
Data Availability: If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem would be
selected.
Urgency: Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research problem. Urgent problem
must be given priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people.
Feasibility: Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the research problem. The
researcher qualification, training and experience should match the problem.
Area Culture: The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his research is also
responsible for the selection of research problem.
Necessity of Defining the Problem: A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This
statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must
be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones.
A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an
ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be collected? What
characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored. What
techniques are to be used for the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind of the
researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the
research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a
prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance.
Technique Involved in Defining a Problem:
The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after
the other:
(i) statement of the problem in a general way
(ii) understanding the nature of the problem
(iii) surveying the available literature
(iv) developing the ideas through discussions and
(v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
Module-2
Reviewing the literature:

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of

current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing
research.
Writing a literature review involves finding relevant publications (such as books and journal
articles), critically analyzing them, and explaining what you found. There are five key steps:
• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review
A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources – it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically
evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Reviewing the literature: -Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the
available body of knowledge in your area of interest.
Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable contribution to
every operational step. -Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but
is also rewarding. Its functions are:

a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem - The process of reviewing the literature
helps you to understand the subject area better and thus helps you to conceptualise your research
problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to understand the relationship between your
research problem and the body of knowledge in the area

b. Improve your methodology - A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and
methods similar to the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked
well for them, and what problems they have faced with them. Thus you will be better positioned
to select a methodology that is capable of providing valid answer to your research questions

c. Broaden your knowledge- It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which you
intend to conduct your research study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of study,
it helps fulfill this expectation. It also helps you to understand how the findings of your study fit
into the existing body of knowledge.

d. Contextualise your findings- How do answers to your research questions compare with what
others have found? What contribution have you been able to make in to the existing body of
knowledge? How are your findings different from those of others? For you to be able to answer
these questions, you need to go back to your literature review. It is important to place your findings
in the context of what is already known in your field of enquiry.
Procedure for reviewing the literature:
i) search for existing literature in your area of study- To effectively search for literature in
your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you have in mind at least some idea of broad subject
area and of the problem you wish to investigate, in order to set parameters for your search. -Next
compile a bibliography for this broad area. Sources are:

1. books- BOOKS comprise a central part of any bibliography. Advantage-material published

generally is of good quality and the findings are integrated with other research to form a coherent
body of knowledge. Disadvantage-material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years
between the completion of a work and publication in the form of a book. Search for books in your
area of interest, prepare a final list, locate these books in the libraries or borrow from other sources.
Examine their content, if contents are not found to be relevant to your topic, delete it from your
reading list.

2.journals -Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though there is a gap
of two to three years between the completion of a research project and the publication in a journal.
As with books, you need to prepare a list of journals for identifying literature relevant to your
study. This can be done as follows: -locate the hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to
your study; - use the internet - look at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify
and read the articles. Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals you want to look at
in more detail for your review of literature. Select the latest issue, examine its content page to see
if there is an article of relevance to your research topic. If you feel a particular article is of relevance
to you, read its abstract. If you think you are likely to use it, photocopy or prepare a summary and
record it for reference for later use.

ii) review the literature selected- After identifying books and articles as useful, the next step is
to start reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are associated. If you do not
have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets of paper for each
article or book. Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far
reviewed into that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that framework.
As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the theme so
far developed. You may need to add more themes as you go. Read critically with particular
reference to the following aspects:

• Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed beyond doubt.
• Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies adopted
and the criticisms of them.
• Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations. Ascertain the areas
in which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge.

iii) develop a theoretical framework- As you have limited time it is important to set parameters
by reviewing the literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to your research topic. As
you start reading the literature, you will realize that it deals with a number of aspects that have a
direct `and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these aspects as a basis for developing
your theoretical framework. Until you go through the literature you cannot develop a theoretical
framework and until you have developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review
the literature. Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information: -
universal; - more specifi c( i.e. local trends or specific program) In writing about such information
you should start with the general information, gradually narrowing down to the specific.

iv) develop a conceptual framework.

Writing up the literature reviewed: In order to comply with the first function of literature review
i.e. to provide theoretical background to your study: -List the main themes that have emerged while
reading literature. -Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise,
descriptive of the theme in question, and follow a logical progression. -Now, under each
subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in question, highlighting the
reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and identify gaps and issues. In order to comply
with the second function of literature review i.e. contextualising the findings of your study-
requires you to very systematically compare your findings with those made by others. Quote from
these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add to them. It places your findings
in the context of what others have found out. This function is undertaken when writing about your
findings i.e. after analysis of your data.

Research Design:
Meaning of Research Design: The most important step after defining the research problem is
preparing the design of the research project, which is popularly known as the research design. A
research design helps to decide upon issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means
etc. With regard to an enquiry or a research study. A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure. In fact, research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data (Selltizetal, 1962). Thus, research design provides an outline of what the
researcher is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its operational implications and the
final data analysis. Specifically, the research design highlights decisions which include:
1. The nature of the study
2.The purpose of the study
3.The location where the study would be conducted
4.The nature of data required
5.From where the required data can be collected
6.What time period the study would cover
7.The type of sample design that would be used
8.The techniques of data collection that would be used
9.The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research design may be divided into the
following (Kothari 1988):
a) The sampling design that deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the selected
study b) The observational design that relates to the conditions under which the observations are
to be made
c) The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed, and
how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed and
d) The operational design that deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out

Features of a Good Design:

The important features of Research Design may be outlined as follows:
i. It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required for the
Researchproblem
ii. It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis which would
be adopted and
iii.It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in conducting the
study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking any research

Important Concepts Relating to Research Design:

1. Dependent and independent variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The
concept may assume different quantitative values like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative
variables are not quantifiable 17 in the strictest sense of the term. However, the qualitative
phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute(s)
considered. The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are
known as continuous variables. But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be
expressed only in integer values are called ‗non-continuous variables. In statistical terms, they are
also known as discrete variables. For example, age is a continuous variable, whereas the number
of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depend upon the changes
in other variable or variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables
that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or
exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent
variable, while price is the independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like
income and price of the substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition
to the price of original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is
determined by the independent variables like price of the original commodity, income and price
of substitutes.

2. Extraneous variables: The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose
of the study but affect the dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables. For instance,
assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children‘s
school performance and their self-confidence, in which case the latter is an independent variable
and the former, a dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school
performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by
the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the
extraneous variable(s) on the dependent variable is technically called the ‘experimental error‘.
Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of
extraneous variables on the dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of
independent variable/s is clearly evident. Control, One of the most important features of a good
research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control‘
is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of
extraneous variables. The term ‘control’ is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in
experimental conditions.

3. Confounded relationship: The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its
effects.

4. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting

scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive
statement which relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research
hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas,
the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are predictive statements that are not to be
objectively verified, thus are not classified as research hypotheses.

5. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing research: When the objective of

a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis testing research. Such
research may be in the nature of experimental design or nonexperimental design. The research in
which the independent variable is manipulated is known as experimental hypothesis-testing
research‘, whereas the research in which the independent Variable is not manipulated is
termed as ‘non- experimental hypothesis- testing research‘.

6. Experimental and control groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an

experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as ‘control group‘. On the other hand, when
the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group‘.
In the afore-mentioned example, Group A can be called as control group and Group B as
experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the
groups may be called as ‘experimental groups‘. A research design may include only the
experimental group or both the experimental and control groups together.

7. Treatments: Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control
groups are subject to.
8. Experiment: Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis
relating to a given research problem. For instance, an experiment may be conducted to examine
the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized
into two types, namely, ’absolute experiment‘ and ’comparative experiment‘. If a researcher
wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice
crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine
the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is
known as a comparative experiment.

9. Experimental unit(s): Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or

the blocks, to which different treatments are applied.

Different Research Designs:

Types of research design: There are different types of research designs.
(1) Exploratory research design
(2) Descriptive and diagnostic research design
(3) Hypothesis-testing research design.

1. Exploratory research design: The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative

research design. The main objective of using such a research design is to formulate a research
problem for an in-depth or more precise investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis
from an operational aspect. The major purpose of such studies is the discovery of ideas and
insights. Therefore, sucharesearchdesignsuitableforsuchastudyshouldbeflexibleenoughto provide
opportunity for considering different dimensions of the problem understudy. The inbuilt flexibility
in research design is required as the initial research problem would be transformed into a more
precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn may necessitate changes in the research
procedure for collecting relevant data.

2. Descriptive and diagnostic research design: A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with
describing the characteristics of a particular individual or a group. Meanwhile, a diagnostic
research design determines the frequency with which a variable occurs or its relationship with
another variable. In other words, the study analyzing whether a certain variable is associated with
another comprises a diagnostic research study. On the other hand, a study that is concerned with
specific predictions or with the narration of facts and characteristics related to an individual, group
or situation, are instances of descriptive research studies. Generally, most of the social research
design falls under this category. As a research design, both the descriptive and diagnostic studies
share common requirements, hence they are grouped together. However, the procedure to be used
and the research design need to plan carefully. The research design must also make appropriate
provision for protection against bias and thus maximize reliability, with due regard to the
completion of the research study in an economical manner. The research design in such studies
should be rigid and not flexible
3. Hypothesis-Testing research design: Hypothesis-Testing Research Designs are those in which
the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationship between two or more variables. These
studies require procedures that would not only decrease bias and enhance reliability, but also
facilitate deriving inferences about the causality. Generally, experiments satisfy such
requirements. Hence, when research design is discussed in such studies, it often refers to the design
of experiments.

Basic Principles of Experimental Designs : Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of
experimental designs:

(1) the Principle of Replication-the experiment should be repeated more than once. Thus, each
treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the statistical accuracy
of the experiments is increased.

(2) the Principle of Randomization- The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when
we conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other
words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the
variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.”

(3) Principle of Local Control- the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made
to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that
the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This
means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of
variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to,
the extraneous factor and experimental error. In other words, according to the principle of local
control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each
such block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the treatments are
randomly assigned to these parts of a block. Dividing the field into several homogenous parts is
known as ‘blocking’. In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factor fixed,
so that we can measure its contribution to the total variability of the data by means of a two-way
analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can eliminate the variability
due to extraneous factor(s) from the experimental error.

Important Experimental Designs.

(a) Informal experimental designs:

(i) Before-and-after without control design-A single test group or area is selected and the
dependent variable is measured. the treatment is then introduced and then the dependent variable
is measured again.
the effect of the treatment:the level of the phenomenon after the treatment-the level of the
phenomenon before the treatment.
 (ii) After-only with control design-Two groups or areas (test area and control area) are selected
and the treatment is introduced into the test area only.

(iii) Before-and-after with control design-

(b) Formal experimental designs:

(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).

(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).

(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).

(iv) Factorial designs