MTS 231 Actuating System

Dr. Basharat Ullah

Week 06

Department of Mechatronics
College of Electrical and Mechanical
Engineering
Example 7.1
❑ A simple rotating loop between curved pole faces connected to a battery and a
resistor through a switch. The resistor shown models the total resistance of the
battery and the wire in the machine. The physical dimensions and characteristics
of this machine are

❑ What happens when the switch is closed?

❑ What is the machine’s maximum starting current? What is its steady-state
angular velocity at no load?
Example 7.1
❑ The switch is closed, since the loop is initially stationary, 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0

❑ This current flows through the rotor loop, producing a torque

❑ As the rotor begins to turn, an induced voltage is produced in the motor, given by

❑ At starting conditions, the machine’s current is

❑ The speed of the rotor is
Example 7.1
❑ C) Suppose a load is attached to the loop, and the resulting load torque is 10 Nm.
What would the new steady-state speed be? How much power is supplied to the
shaft of the machine? How much power is being supplied by the battery? Is this
machine a motor or a generator?
❑ At steady state

❑ By Kirchhoff’s voltage law

❑ Finally, the speed of the shaft is
Example 7.1
❑ C) Suppose a load is attached to the loop, and the resulting load torque is 10 Nm.
What would the new steady-state speed be? How much power is supplied to the
shaft of the machine? How much power is being supplied by the battery? Is this
machine a motor or a generator?
❑ The power supplied to the shaft is

❑ The power out of the battery is

❑ This machine is operating as a motor, converting electric power to mechanical
power.
Example 7.1
❑ D) Suppose the machine is again unloaded, and a torque of 7.5 Nm is applied to
the shaft in the direction of rotation. What is the new steady-state speed? Is this
machine now a motor or a generator?
❑ If a torque is applied in the direction of motion, the rotor accelerates.

❑ The induced voltage Finally, the speed of the shaft is

Example 7.1
❑ E) Suppose the machine is running unloaded. What would the final steady-state
speed of the rotor be if the flux density were reduced to 0.20 T?
❑ At unloaded condition speed was 480 rad/s.
❑ The shaft speed is thus

❑ Notice that when the flux in the machine is decreased, its speed increases. This is
the same behavior seen in the linear machine and the same way that real dc
motors behave.
Questions?
Lecture 12
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
❑ Commutation is the process of converting the AC voltages and currents in the
rotor of a DC machine to DC voltages and currents at its terminals.
❑ A simple 4-loop DC machine has four complete loops buried in slots curved in
the laminated steel of its rotor. The pole faces are curved to make a uniform air-
gap. The four loops are laid into the slots in a special manner: the innermost wire
in each slot (end of each loop opposite to the “unprimed”) is indicated by a
prime.
Loop 1 stretches
between commutator
segments a and b,
loop 2 stretches
between segments b
and c…
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
❑ At a certain time instance, when ω𝑡 = 0°, the 1, 2, 3’, and 4’ ends of the loops
are under the north pole face and the 1’, 2’, 3, and 4 ends of the loops are under
the south pole face. The voltage in each of 1, 2, 3’, and 4’ ends is given by
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝐯 × 𝐁 × 𝐥 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 − positive, out of the page

❑ The voltage in each of 1’, 2’, 3, and 4 ends is

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝐯 × 𝐁 × 𝐥 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 − positive, into the page
❑ If the induced voltage on any side of a loop is 𝑣𝐵𝑙, the total voltage at the
brushes of the DC machine is
𝐸 = 4𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑡 = 0°
❑ We notice that there are two parallel paths for current through the machine! The
existence of two or more parallel paths for rotor current is a common feature of
all commutation schemes.
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
❑ If the machine keeps rotating, at ω𝑡 = 45°, loops 1 and 3 have rotated into the
gap between poles, so the voltage across each of them is zero. At the same time,
the brushes short out the commutator segments ab and cd.

❑ This is ok since the voltage across loops 1 and 3 is zero and only loops 2 and 4 are
under the pole faces. Therefore, the total terminal voltage is
𝐸 = 2𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑡 = 45°
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
❑ Now, let the rotor continue to turn by another ω𝑡 = 45°.
At ω𝑡 = 90°, the loop ends 1’, 2, 3, and 4’ are under the
north pole face, and the loop ends 1, 2’, 3’, and 4 are
under the south pole face. Four voltage-carrying ends in
each parallel path through the machine lead to the
terminal voltage of
𝐸 = 4𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑡 = 90°

❑ We notice that the voltages in loops 1 and 3 have

reversed compared to ω𝑡 = 0°. However, the loops’
connections have also reversed, making the total voltage
being of the same polarity.
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
❑ The terminal voltage of this 4-loop DC machine
is still not constant over time, although it is a
better approximation to a constant DC level
than what is produced by a single rotating
loop.
❑ Increasing the number of loops on the rotor,
we improve our approximation to perfect DC
voltage.
❑ Commutator segments are usually made from copper bars and the brushes are made
of a mixture containing graphite to minimize friction between segments and brushes.
❑ Commutation is the process of switching the loop connections on the rotor of a dc
machine just as the voltage in the loop switches polarity, to maintain an essentially
constant dc output voltage.
Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ Loops on the rotor (armature) can be connected to the commutator segments in
several ways.
❑ These different connections affect:
o Number of parallel current paths within the armature,
o The output voltage of the armature, and
o The number and position of brushes riding on the commutator segments
❑ The Rotor Coils
❑ Rotor windings consist of diamond-shaped preformed coils, inserted into the
armature slots as a unit.
❑ Each coil consists of a number of turns (loops) of wire, each insulated from the
other turns and from the rotor slot.
❑ Each side of a turn is called a conductor.
Armature Construction in Real Machines
Conductor

A turn – two conductors

connected to an end by
an end connector
Conductor

❑ A coil – several turns connected in series

❑ A winding – several coils connected in series

Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ The number of conductors on a machine’s armature is given by
𝑍 = 2𝐶𝑁𝐶
where
o Z = Number of conductors on rotor
o C = number of coils on rotor
o 𝑁𝐶 = Number of turns per coil
❑ A coil usually spans 180 electrical degrees i.e., when one side is under the center
of a given magnetic pole, the other side is under the center of a pole of opposite
polarity.
❑ Coil Span: Coil span is defined as peripheral distance between two sides of a coil,
measured in terms of number of armature slots between them.
Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ Electrical and Mechanical angles 180o electrical
= 90o mech
❑ The physical poles may not be located 180 mechanical
degrees apart.
❑ The relationship between electrical angle and N
mechanical angle in a given machine is given by

S S
where e = electrical angle, in degrees
m = mechanical angle, in degrees
P = number of magnetic poles on the machine
N
❑ If coil sides are placed 180° electrical apart, the coil is
said to be full-pitch coil.
Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ If the coil span is less than the pole pitch, then the winding is referred as
fractional pitched coil, a rotor winding wound with such coils is called Short
pitch/chorded winding.
❑ The amount of chording in a coil is described by a pitch factor p, which is defined
as

❑ Fractional pitched windings are purposely used to effect substantial saving in

copper of the end connection and for improving commutation.
❑ Single-layer Armature winding
❑ In a single layer armature winding, each slot is occupied by one side of an
armature coil.
Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ Two-layer Armature winding
❑ Most rotor windings are two-layer windings i.e. sides from two different coils are
inserted into each slot.
❑ One side of each coil will be at the bottom of its slot, and the other side will be at
the top of its slot.
❑ As such, all the windings are woven together, increasing the mechanical strength
and uniformity of the final structure.
Connections to the Commutator Segments
❑ After installation in rotor slots, the windings must be connected to the
commutator segments.
❑ Commutator pitch 𝑦𝑐 : The distance (in number of segments) between the
commutator segments to which the two ends of a coil are connected.
Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ Progressive Winding: If the end of a coil (or a set number of coils, for wave
construction) is connected to a commutator segment ahead of the one its
beginning is connected to. (𝑦𝑐 = 1)
❑ Retrogressive Winding: If the end of a coil is connected to a commutator segment
behind the one its beginning is connected to. (𝑦𝑐 = −1)
Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ Simplex Winding: A single, complete, closed winding wound on a rotor.
❑ Duplex Winding: A rotor with two complete and independent sets of rotor
windings.
❑ Finally, armature windings are classified according to the sequence of their
connections to the commutator segments.
o Lap windings
o Wave windings
Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ The Lap Winding
❑ The simplest type of winding construction used in modem dc machines is the
simplex series or lap winding.
❑ A simplex lap winding consists of coils containing one or more turns of wire with
the two ends of each coil coming out at adjacent commutator segments.
Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ The Lap Winding
❑ An interesting feature of simplex lap windings is that there are as many parallel
current paths through the machine as there are poles on the machine.
❑ In general, for a multiplex lap winding 𝑦𝑐 = ±𝑚, where m = plex of the windings
❑ The number of current paths (a) in a machine is
𝑎 = 𝑚𝑃
❑ P = number of poles on machine
❑ No. of poles = no. of brushes = no. of parallel paths
Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ The Wave Winding
❑ Every other rotor coil connects back to a commutator segment adjacent to the
beginning of the first coil.
❑ Thus, there are two coils in series between the adjacent commutator segments.
❑ The winding can be progressive or retrogressive depending on whether the
second coil is connected to the segment ahead or behind the first coil.
Armature Construction in Real Machines
❑ The Wave Winding
❑ The winding can be progressive or retrogressive depending on whether the
second coil is connected to the segment ahead or behind the first coil.
❑ Commutator pitch
𝒚𝒄 = 𝟐(𝑪  𝟏)/𝑷
where C is the no. of coils on the rotor
P is the no. of poles on the machine
❑ Current paths, 𝑎 = 2𝑚, where 𝑚 is plex (e.g. for duplex 𝑚 = 2)
❑ Regardless of number of poles, there are always 2 parallel path (simplex)
Questions?