Introduction to the Course

Dr. Maya Kumari

1
 CREDITS

• COURSE TITLE: Spatial Data Analysis & Modeling

• COURSE CODE: GST701
• CREDIT UNITS: 4

L T P/S SW/FW TOTAL

CREDIT UNITS

2 0 2 2 4
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 COURSE OBJECTIVES:

• The objective is to provide the student with the ability to analyze GIS data of all sorts, and to
understand the uses and limitations of GIS data. Emphasis is placed on both theoretical aspects of
GIS data analysis and geo-computation, as well as hands-on familiarity with basic GIS software
applications

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 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES:

• Understanding of the nature of spatial data and the principles of GIS

• Ability to define a problem in terms of its spatial analytical context

• Specify models and methodology for spatial analysis

• Demonstrate specific methods of spatial analysis including interpolation, overlay analysis,

multivariate analysis such as principle components analysis and clustering, descriptive spatial
statistics and spatial regression models

4
 Weightage
Module I Geodatabase Models 20%
Basics of Geodatabase Model (Object-oriented Concepts), Role of Databases in GIS, Creating, Editing and Managing Geo-
databases, Creating and Editing Linearly Referenced Features, Case Study of Geodatabase Model
•
Module II Spatial Data Analyses Techniques 20%
Classification Scheme of Vector-Based and Raster-Based GIS Operations
Raster–Based Techniques
Methods of Reclassification, Overlay Analysis, Slope and Aspects, Buffering, Viewshed Analysis (Inter-Visibility Analysis),
Cost-Distance Calculation
Vector-Based Techniques
Map Manipulation Techniques, Buffering, Overlay Analysis, Network Analysis
Digital Terrain Analyses and Modeling: TIN and DEM, Surface Representation & Analysis
Module III Geostatistical Analysis Techniques (Elementary Concepts) 20%
Geostatistical Analysis: Introduction, Descriptive Statistics: Central Tendency, Dispersion , Spatial Autocorrelation: Geary’s
Index, Moran’s Index , Quadrant Count and Nearest-Neighbour Analysis , Trend Surface Analysis, Gravity Models
Module IV Geostatistical Analysis Techniques (Advanced Concepts) 20%
Spatial Interpolation: Introduction, Control Points, Global Methods: Trend Surface Analysis, Regression Models, Local Methods:
Thiessen Polygons, Density Estimation, Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation, Kriging: Ordinary Kriging (Semivariance,
Semivariogram), Universal Kriging, Other Kriging methods
Comparison among the Local Methods
Module V Spatial Modeling 20%
Model Conceptualization and Formulation ,
Analysis
Spatial Data: Definition, Analyses, Processes & Steps, Software and Tools for Performing Spatial Data Analyses
Spatial Modeling
Introduction, Raster-Based and Vector-Based GIS Modeling, Binary Models, Index Models, Regression Models,
Index Models, Regression Model and Process Model 5
Case studies
 LAB/PRACTICAL DETAILS

• Creation and editing of geodatabase

• Overlay methods and feature manipulations
• Pattern analysis: moran’s index and geary’s index
• Local, neighborhood and zonal operations in raster data analysis
• Local and global interpolation techniques
• Applications of :
Binary model
Index model
Regression model 6

Process model
 ASSESSMENT/ EXAMINATION SCHEME:
Theory Assessment (L&T):
Continuous Assessment/Internal Assessment
End Term Examination
Components (Drop down)
Mid-Term Home Assignment Presentation Attendance
Exam
Weightage (%)
15 10 10 5 60

Lab / Practical/Studio Assessment:

Continuous Assessment/Internal Assessment
End Term Examination
Components (Drop down)
Class Test (Practical Practical Record Viva Attendance
Based)
Weightage (%)
15 10 10 5 60

7
 REFERENCE & TEXT BOOKS

• Maquire, David J., Michael Batty, And Michael F. Goodchild, Eds. GIS, Spatial Analysis, And Modeling, Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, 2005.

• Mitchell, Andy. The ESRI Guide To GIS Analysis: Volume 2: Spatial Measurements And Statistics, Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, 2005.

• Zeiler, Michael. Modeling Our World: The ESRI Guide To Geodatabase Design, Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, 1999.

• Waller, Lance A. And Carol A. Gotway. Applied Spatial Statistics For Public Health Data, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004.

• Longley, Paul A. And Michael Batty, Eds. Advanced Spatial Analysis: The CASA Book Of GIS, Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, 2003.

• - Griffth, Daniel A. And Larry J. Layne. A Casebook For Spatial Statistical Data Analysis: A Compilation Of Analyses Of Different
Thematic Data Sets, New York: Oxford Press, 1999.

• Collett, David. Modeling Binary Data (Second Ed.), Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall, 2003.

• Clarke, Keith C., Bradley O. Parks, And Michael P. Crane. Geographic Information Systems And Environmental Modeling, Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002.

• Clark, Isobel And William V. Harper. Practical Geostatistics 2000, Columbus, Ohio: Ecosse North America, LLC, 2000.

• Burrough, Peter A. And Rachael Mcdonnell., Principles Of Geographical Information Systems. Oxford University Press, New York .1998.

8
 Geodatabase Fundamentals

• Spatial data formats

• Geodatabase data structure

9
 Spatial Data Formats

• The GIS uses the geometric objects of point, line, and area to represent simple spatial features

10
 Spatial Data Formats
Formats are based on representations of the real world

• CAD – first computer mapping format.

o Binary file format with little attribute information

• Coverage – native ArcInfo 7 format.

o Based on Georelational data model.
o Topological relationships are maintained.

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 Coverage Types

Point Line Polygon

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 Spatial Data Formats

• Shapefile – introduced with ArcView

o Also Georelational data model – non topological vector data format.
o Very creative format – much GIS data in shapefile format.

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 Geodatabase
• Geodatabase – introduced in ArcInfo 8.
• Object-oriented model – can characterize features more naturally by defining
object types, topological, spatial and general relationships and interactions.
• Geodatabase features can be stored in a single database.
• Create custom features in addition to points, lines, polygons

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 Supported Data Types
• ArcInfo 8 supports four representations of geographic data.
• Vector data for representing features.
• Raster data for images, grids, and surfaces.
• Triangulated irregular networks (tins) for surfaces.
• Tabular data.
o Locators and addresses for finding a geographic position from an address.
o Locators apply national postal conventions to convert an address to a
position

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17
THANK YOU

18
Geodatabase

Lecture 2

Dr. Maya Kumari

1
 Geodatabase Fundamentals

• Geodatabase Components
• Geodatabase Advantage
• Geodatabase Types
• Geodatabase Elements

2
ArcCatalog is the principal user interface
used to define and manage the
geodatabase

3
 ArcCatalog

•There are five types of data shown here

Geodatabase
Coverage

Arc Map
Project file

Shapefile

Tabular data
 Data Types

• Geodatabase (GDB): This is ArcGIS’s newest data model for storing

geographic information
• A geodatabase can contain many layers, known as “feature classes.” Shapefiles
have only one layer.
• As an example, here is a geodatabase with three feature classes, as seen in Arc
Catalog
Geodatabase

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 Feature Classes

• In a geodatabase there are features classes for points, lines and areas
(polygons) as well as for rasters (surfaces), annotation (labels), and
dimensions

Polygon, or area feature class

Line, or arc feature class

Annotation class: stores info about

displaying labels on a map layer;
important for roads and utilities
 Feature Dataset

• Feature dataset: a thematic grouping of feature classes

• Feature classes can be stand alone (do not have to be within a feature
dataset)

Feature
datasets

Feature
classes
 Geodatabase Advantages
• Geodatabases offer numerous advantages:
• Multiple spatial layers and non-spatial data sources can be stored in a single file
(personal GDB) and organized thematically
• Rules can be easily defined that can apply to all classes
• These rules can include relationships between layers
• Example: one subclass with water lines and one with water valves; you can ensure
that if you move a water line, the water valve that connects that line will move as
well, or it ensures that, say, if the material attribute for a water line is set to copper,
the water valves that connect to it will also be copper
 Geodatabase Advantages

• Other advantages:
• Spatial layers maintain the same measurement and geographic reference systems,
because new layers added to the geodatabase can “inherit” properties of existing
ones
• Labeling “behavior” can be stored as an annotation feature class, making it easier
to keep labels consistent
• “Domains” can be established, which specify the valid ranges of values for
attributes, which reduces input error.
 GEODATABASE

• Types: Personal (single-user) or Enterprise (multi-user)

• We will use personal geodatabases. These are actually Microsoft Access files with
the .MDB file extension.
• We may also use the newer file geodatabases. These are a multi-file-within-folder
model similar to a coverage, but easier to manage. The folder has a .MDB
extension.
• A multi-user geodatabase is for organizations that wish to have many people
accessing the same database. These are used with enterprise database systems, like
Oracle, Informix or SQL Server
 PERSONAL (SINGLE-USER)
GEODATABASE

• Personal geodatabase.
• Implemented as a microsoft access database (*.Mdb file) by using MS jet engine which
is installed with AI8.
• Can be placed on local or network drives.
• Generally used for personal or small work-group use.
• Can handle small to moderately sized datasets.
• If a personal geodatabase is deleted its gone.

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 PERSONAL GEODATABASE

• View of a geodatabase in MS Access, where you can edit and query

attribute tables and manage relationships between feature classes….

• Can only view

spatially in
ArcGIS (not in
Access)
 ENTERPRISE (MULTI-USER)
GEODATABASE

• ArcSDE geodatabase

• ArcSDE is the multi-user data access extension to ArcInfo (bundled w/software)

that serves geodatabases to AI applications running on PC’s on network.
• Used for demanding datasets requiring concurrent editing by multiple users.
• Created by installing a DBMS and ArcSDE on a server.
• ArcCatalog only creates and deletes connections to ArcSDE geodatabases.
• Can be deployed on UNIX or WINDOWS.
• Can build SQL applications to access tables in a remote geodatabase.

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 ELEMENTS IN GEODATABASE

• The Geodatabase
• Inside the Geodatabase
• Object classes, feature classes, Rasters
• Feature datasets
• Validation rules
• Domains, subtypes, relationship classes
• Annotation, dimensions
• Advanced Behavior
• Geodatabase extension datasets
 INSIDE THE GEO-DATABASE

• A geodatabase contains datasets

• Datasets represent collections of information with a real-world interpretation
• Types of geographic datasets:
• Tables, feature classes, raster
• Feature datasets
• Networks, topologies, terrains
• Datasets have associated information
• Manage integrity, behavior, and interpretation
• Domains, relational integrity, topology, metadata
 GEO-DATABASE ELEMENTS
Geodatabase
Tables
Feature dataset
Spatial reference Feature Classes

Polygon Route Raster Datasets

Line Dimension
Point Additional geodatabase elements
Annotation Parcel fabrics Terrain datasets
Representations Locators

Relationship classes Toolboxes

Tool Model Script
Geometric networks
Behavior
Topology Attribute defaults Connectivity rules
Attribute domains Relationship rules
Network datasets Split/merge policy Topology rules
 OBJECTS AND OBJECT CLASSES
– TABLES

• Objects are entities with properties and behavior

• An object is an instance of an object class
• All objects in an object class have the same properties and behavior
 FEATURES AND FEATURE CLASSES
• Builds on the relational model
• A feature is a spatial object
• A feature is an instance of a feature class
• Extended the relational model
• Geometry attribute type

A feature class is a table of rows, where each row has

a geographic column
 GEO-DATABASE SUPPORTS
ADVANCED GEOMETRY

• Point, Lines, Polygons

• Single and multipart features

Feature with many parts One record in feature class table

• Text and surfaces

• Flexible coordinates
- XY, Z, M
 RASTER AND IMAGERY
• Support for many formats
• TIFF, BMP, GRID
• Attribute field in a table
• Mosaic dataset
• Data model for managing raster
collections
• Stored as a catalog, viewed as a
mosaic
• Advanced querying and
processing
THANK YOU

22
Geodatabase

Lecture 3

Dr. Maya Kumari

1
 Geodatabase Fundamentals

• Geodatabase Elements Contd..

2
 Feature datasets

• A container object for other

Subdivision
datasets
• Same spatial reference ParcelCorner
Parcel
ParcelAnno
• Analogous to a coverage
LotLines
• Less restrictive
Parcel_Topo
LotDimensions
• Contain geometric networks,
topologies, terrains, etc… BoundryLines
• Optionally relationship classes
 Validation rules

• Attribute, connectivity, and relationship rules

• Stored on objects as part of the Geodatabase

• Predefined, Parameter Driven

• Attribute range rule
• Attribute set rule
• Connectivity rule

• Perform custom validation by writing code

 Domains
• Describe the legal values of a field type
• Used to ensure attribute integrity
• Defined at the geodatabase level
• Types of domains:
o Range
• Valid values between a min / max range
• A tree can have a height between 0 and 300 feet
• A road can have between one and eight lanes
o Coded value
• Valid values chosen from a set list
• A tree can be of type oak, redwood, or plain
• A road can be made of dirt, asphalt, or concrete
 Subtypes
• Categorize objects or features into groups
• Share the same attributes
• Defined at the class level
• Select a field to base the subtype on
• Short or long integer field
• Can have different default values and domains for each field
• Each subtype may have different connectivity, relationship, or topology rules
associated with it
Descriptions Codes
 Relationship classes
• Association between objects in one class and another
• A class may participate in multiple relationship classes
• Simple relationships
– Peer-to-peer relationship that are between two or more objects that exist independently of each other
– Can have one-to-one, one-to-may, or many-to-many cardinality
• Composite relationships
– Destination objects cannot exist without origin object
– Can only have one-to-one, and one-to-many cardinality
• Associate rules with relationship classes
• Each parcel can have between 1 to 3 buildings
ParcelToBuilding
 Annotation
• Annotation feature classes
• Placing text and graphics on the map
• Feature linked or non-feature linked
• Composite relationship manages link
• Can store text as well as other graphics
• Lines, arrows, boxes, etc…
• Visible scale range
Composite Annotation
Feature Class Relationship class Feature class

41 21 41 92 92 Placerville

43 23 43 94 94 Sacramento
47 27 47 95 95 Topanga Canyon
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 Dimension features
• Type of annotation that displays specific distances on a map
• Graphic features stored in a dimension feature class
• Can be created automatically from features
• Set of editing tools
• Define a style, description of symbology

1 3/8"
 Object behavior

• You can:
• Control the default value and acceptable values for any attribute (Domains)
• Partition the objects into like groups (Subtypes)
• Represent classes with predefined behavior (Dimensions and annotation)
• Control the general relationships in which an object can participate (Relationship
classes)
INTERACTION
• Advanced behavior
• Attachments
• Geometric networks
• Network datasets
• Geodatabase topology
• Geodatabase extension datasets
 Attachments

• Associate any type of file with a feature

• Available on a feature identify
• In ArcMap if the file type is known by windows it can be directly accessed
 Geometric Networks

• Uses edges and junctions to model network systems

• Built in a feature dataset
• Each feature class has a role in the network
• Connectivity relationships between feature classes
• Based on geometric coincidence
• Can associate connectivity rules with the network

Geometric networks offer a way to model common networks and infrastructures found in the real world.
Water distribution, electrical lines, gas pipelines, telephone services, and water flow in a stream are all examples
of resource flows that can be modeled and analyzed using a geometric network
 Geometric Networks
• A geometric network is associated with a logical network
• Each network feature is associated with one or more elements in the logical
network
• Trace solvers on the logical network provide
• Connectivity tracing, cycle detection, flow directions
• Upstream / downstream tracing, isolation tracing
Downstream Trace
 Network Datasets

• Network designed for the transportation industry

• Multimodal scenarios
• Edges & junctions
• Attributes
• Properties to control traversability
• Travel time, restrictions, speeds
• On-the-fly calculation of costs
• Improves analysis
 Network Dataset Functionality

• Multimodal
• Points span multiple connectivity groups
• Used to create connectivity between lines in different groups

Turns
• Turns do not alter connectivity, but traversability (e.g. U-
turn restriction)
 GeoDatabase Topology
• A topology manages a set of simple feature classes that share geometry
• Topology is used to:
• Constrain how features share geometry
• Define data integrity rules
• Control editing tools
• Validate features
• Ensure the quality of your data
 Topological Integrity

• Create topologies in a feature dataset

• Participating feature classes / subtypes
• Cluster tolerance, ranks and rules
• Cluster tolerance for XY and Z

• Define rules when creating the topology

• Rules are evaluated during validation
• Violations are expressed as error features
• Managed in the database as a part of the topology
• Error and exceptions
• Examine and fix errors in ArcMap
 Topology Error Examples
• Rules enforced to maintain Topological integrity
• 25+ Topology rules in ArcGIS
 Editing with a Topology

• Editing creates a dirty area

• Area has been edited and may contain errors
• Can be symbolized
• Errors are found during validation
• Errors have properties Parcels overlap

• What rule was violated

• Which feature(s) created the error

• Your options:
• Ignore the error
• Mark as exception
• Fix the error
INTERACTION
THANK YOU

23
SPATIAL DATA ANALYSIS
AND MODELING

1
 Definition

• Data that define a location. These are in the form of graphic primitives that are usually either
points, lines, polygons or pixels.
• Spatial data are data that have a spatial component, it means that data are connected to a place in
the Earth.

2
 Dissemination of spatial data

Three different potential users of spatial data

1. Advanced GIS users; researchers, experts
2. Statisticians, who do not use GIS tools but use statistical tools
3. Ordinary users with no GIS experience

3
SPATIAL DATA ANALYSIS
 Introduction

Spatial data analysis involves:

• Accurate description of data relating to a process in space.
• Exploration of patterns and relationships in data
• Search for explanations of such patterns and relationships
These relate to:
 Visualizing spatial data
 Exploring spatial data
 Modeling spatial data
 Visualizing Spatial Data
An essential requirement in any data analysis is the ability to be able to “see” the data
being analyzed. Plots of data and other graphical displays of various descriptions are
fundamental tools for:
•Seeking patterns
•Generating hypotheses
•Assessing the fit of proposed models
•Determining the validity of predictions derived from models
Maps are the tools for visualizing the spatial data. Hence GIS can provide
an environment to create maps for spatial data and to explore spatial
patterns and relationships quickly and easily.

Cartographic considerations are important in using maps in

spatial data analyses. Because bad choices of map type or
scaling used for data values can lead to

➢Misleading conclusions drawn from the display

➢ Suggest inappropriate models for the process under study

 Exploring Spatial Data

Exploratory methods for spatial data may be in the form

of:
Maps
or
Conventional plots

➢E.g. Some exploratory techniques when applied to point events

result in contour map of the estimated intensity of occurrences of
events over the whole study area; others, applied to the same set of
events result in a graph to throw light on the degree of spatial
dependence between event locations.
Exploring spatial data:
➢ Provides good descriptions of the data
➢ Help to develop hypothesis
➢ Help to establish appropriate models

If many exploratory spatial techniques result in different forms of

maps, then how do they really differ from visualization
techniques?
 Distinction Between Visualizing and Exploring
Spatial Data

Dividing line between visualization of spatial data and exploratory data analysis is somewhat
artificial. The distinction is made based on the degree of data manipulation.
➢E.G.

Suppose that we have cause-specific death rates which are age-standardized

in a number of administrative zone.
 Visualizing Spatial Data Involves:

• A map of death rates

• Simple transformation of the rates
(No data manipulation)

Exploring spatial data involves:

Map of spatial moving average of the rates in for smoothing out local variations
in order to see clearly global trends (the moving averages are computed in which
each rate is replaced by the average of itself and those neighboring districts)
(Data manipulation)
 Distinction Between Exploring And Modeling Spatial
Data

Exploratory methods do not involve any explicit model for the data.
However several exploratory techniques involve informal comparison of
some summary data. Hence models do enter into exploratory techniques.
The distinction is based on the degree to what extent any comparison made
between the model. Moreover models depend on certain assumptions.
 Modeling Spatial Data
Models are mathematical abstraction of reality and not reality itself. A
statistical model involve using a combination of both:

 Data
 Reasonable assumptions

About the nature of phenomena being modeled. The assumptions are

arise from:

❑Background theoretical knowledge about the behavior of the

phenomena
❑The results of previous analysis on the same or similar phenomenon
❑Judgement and intuition of the modeler.
Figure . Analysis of spatial data
 Practical Problems Of Spatial Data Analysis

There are basically four types of problem that an analyst can face:

1. Problem of geographical scale

2. Lack of spatial indexing
3. Problem of edge of boundary effects
4. Problem of modifiable areal unit
 Problem 1: Geographical scale at
which analyses are performed.

Spatial data analysis is concerned with detecting and modeling spatial pattern. However, pattern at
one geographical scale may be simply random variations in another pattern at a different scale.
 E.g. Local variations in disease rates may die
out against the national scale.

The scale to which spatial analysis relates depends on:

❖Phenomena under study

❖Objective of the analysis
❖Scale at which data collected
 Problem 2: Lack of spatial indexing or
ordering in space.

• An indexing implies that we have a natural notion of what is next or

previous. On a regular grid there is reasonably a natural ordering of
locations.

• However, spatial data are not indexed most of the time. While some data
(those from satellites) come in the form of regular grid or lattice, much
spatial data are provided for a patchwork quilt of areal units or irregularly
distributed set of sites.
 Problem 3: Problem of edge or boundary
effect.

• In the middle of a study area, a site or zone may likely to be surrounded by others;
i.e. zone may have neighbors.
• However, at the edge of the map or study region, the neighbors extend in one
direction only. In spatial domain there is potentially much greater set of
observations around the edge of the map.
• Therefore edge effects play critical role. This problem can be overcome by leaving
a guard area.
 Problem 4: Problem of modifiable areal
unit.
• When data are measurements on a set of zones, often they are aggregated measurements such as households or
individuals living in a zone.
• For the sake of confidentially, the data are realized for arbitrary areal units.
• The important point is to note that any result from the analysis of these area aggregations is usually
conditional on the set of zones. Depending on different aggregated areas the result is subject to change.
Thank you

21
Spatial Data Analysis

Lecture 6

Dr. Maya Kumari

1
 Spatial Data Analysis

• Introduction
• Significance
• Use of GIS in Spatial Analysis

2
Spatial Analysis
 Introduction
• Geographic analysis allows us to study and understand the real world processes by developing
and applying manipulation, analysis criteria & models and to carryout integrated modeling.
• These criteria illuminate underlying trends in geographic data, making new information
available.
• A GIS enhances this process by providing tools which can be combined in meaningful sequence
to reveal new or previously unidentified relationships within or between data sets, thus
increasing better understanding of real world.
• The results of geographic analysis can be commercial in the form of maps, reports or both.
• Integration involves bringing together diverse information from a variety of sources and analysis
of multi-parameter data to provide answers and solutions to defined problems.
Spatial analysis is the vital part of GIS. It can be done in two
ways. One is the vector based and the other is raster based
analysis.
 Significance Of Spatial Analysis
• Spatial analysis is one of the most important uses of GIS. Since the advent of GIS in the
1980s, many government agencies have invested heavily in GIS installations, including
the purchase of hardware and software and the construction of mammoth data-bases.
• Two fundamental functions of GIS have been widely realized : generation of maps and
generation of tabular reports.
• Indeed, GIS provides a very effective tool for generating maps and statistical reports
from a database.
• However, GIS functionality far exceeds the purposes of mapping and report compilation.
• In addition to the basic functions related to automated cartography and data base
management systems, the most important uses of GIS are spatial analysis capabilities.
• As spatial information is organized in a GIS, it should be able to answer complex
questions regarding space.
• Making maps alone does not justify the high cost of building a GIS.
• The same maps may be produced using a simpler cartographic package.
• Likewise, if the purpose is to generate tabular output, then a simpler database
management system or a statistical package may be a more efficient solution.
• It is spatial analysis that requires the logical connections between attribute data and map
features, and the operational procedures built on the spatial relationships among map
features.
• These capabilities make GIS a much more powerful and cost effective tool than either
automated cartographic packages, statistical packages, or data base management
systems.
• Indeed, functions required for performing spatial analyses that are not available in either
cartographic packages or data base management systems are commonly implemented in
GIS.
 Using GIS For Spatial Analysis

• Spatial analysis in GIS involves three types of operations: Attribute Query,

Spatial Query and Generation of new data sets from the original database.
• The scope of spatial analysis ranges from a simple query about the spatial
phenomenon to complicated combinations of attribute queries, spatial queries,
and alterations of original data.
 Attribute Query:
• Attribute Query: Requires the processing of attribute data exclusive of spatial information. In other
words, it’s a process of selecting information by asking logical questions.

Example: From a database of a city parcel map where every parcel is listed with a land use code, a
simple attribute query may require the identification of all parcels for a specific land use type. Such a
query can be handled through the table without referencing the parcel map (Fig. 1). Because no spatial
information is required to answer this question, the query is considered an attribute query. In this
example, the entries in the attribute table that have land use codes identical to the specified type are
identified.
 Spatial Query:

• Spatial Query: Involves selecting features based on location or spatial relationships,

which requires processing of spatial information. For instance a question may be raised
about parcels within one mile of the freeway and each parcel. In this case, the answer
can be obtained either from a hardcopy map or by using a GIS with the required
geographic information (Fig. 2).
• Example: Let us take one spatial query example where a request is submitted for rezoning, all
owners whose land is within a certain distance of all parcels that may be rezoned must be notified
for public hearing. A spatial query is required to identify all parcels within the specified distance.
This process can not be accomplished without spatial information. In other words, the attribute
table of the database alone does not provide sufficient information for solving problems that
involve location.

Fig. 2 Land owners within a specified distance from the

parcel to be rezoned identified through spatial query
• While basic spatial analysis involves some attribute queries and spatial queries,
complicated analysis typically require a series of GIS operations including multiple
attribute and spatial queries, alteration of original data, and generation of new data sets.
• The methods for structuring and organizing such operations are major concern in spatial
analysis.
• An effective spatial analysis is one in which the best available methods are appropriately
employed for different types of attribute queries, spatial queries, and data alteration.
• The design of the analysis depends on the purpose of study.
 GIS Usage In Spatial Analysis
• GIS can interrogate geographic features and retrieve associated attribute information, called identification.
It can generate new set of maps by query and analysis. It also evolves new information by spatial
operations. Here are described some analytical procedures applied with a GIS. GIS operational procedure
and analytical tasks that are particularly useful for spatial analysis include:
o Single layer operations
o Multi layer operations/ Topological overlay
o Spatial Modelling
o Geometric modeling
o Calculating the distance between geographic features
o Calculating area, length and perimeter
o Geometric buffers.
o Point pattern Analysis
o Network analysis
o Surface analysis
o Raster/Grid analysis
o Fuzzy Spatial Analysis
o Geostatistical Tools for Spatial Analysis
 Single layer operations

• Single layer operations: are procedures, which correspond to queries and alterations of data that
operate on a single data layer.
• Example: Creating a buffer zone around all streets of a road map is a single layer operation. As
shown in the figure3:

Fig. 3 : Buffer zones extended from streets

 Multi layer operations:

• Multi layer operations: are useful for manipulation of spatial data on multiple data layers.
• Figure 4 depicts the overlay of two input data layers representing soil map and a landuse map
respectively.
• The overlay of these two layers produce the new map of different combinations of soil and land
use are delineated.

Fig. 4: The overlay of two data layers creates a map

of combined polygons.
 Topological overlays:

Topological overlays: These are multi layer operations which allow to combine
features from different layers to form a new map and give new information and
features that were not present in the individual maps.
 Spatial Modeling:
• Spatial modeling: involves the construction of explanatory and predictive models for statistical
testing. Figure 5 shows an example of air pollution spatial modeling.
• Emissions of a specific particulate are measured at monitoring stations represented as point
locations on the bottom layer.
• The distribution of air pollution is believed to be related to soils (silt content and other soil
characteristics), agricultural operations roads, and topography.
• With a data base containing all required data elements, a spatial model can be constructed to
explain the distribution of air pollution based on these related variables.

Fig. 5: A spatial model of air pollution based on the

distributions of several variables.
 Point Pattern Analysis:
• Point pattern analysis: deals with the examination and evaluation of spatial patterns and the processes of point
features.
• A typical biological survey map is shown in figure 6, in which each point feature denotes the observation of an
endangered species such as big horn sheep in southern California.
• The objective of illustrating point features is to determine the most favourable environmental conditions for this
species. Consequently, the spatial distribution of species can be examined in a point pattern analysis.
• If the distribution illustrates a random pattern, it may be difficult to identify significant factors that influence
species distribution. However, I observed locations show a systematic pattern such as the clusters in this
diagram, it is possible to analyze the animals’ behaviour in terms of environmental characteristics. In general,
point pattern analysis is the first step in studying the spatial distribution of point features.

Fig. 6: Distribution of an endangered species examined in a

point pattern analysis.
 Network analysis:
Network analysis: designed specifically for line features organized in connected networks, typically applies to
transportation problems and location analysis such as school bus routing, passenger plotting, walking distance,
bus stop optimization, optimum path finding etc.
Figure 7 shows a common application of GIS-based network analysis. Routing is a major concern for the
transportation industry. For instance, trucking companies must determine the most cost-effective way of
connecting stops for pick-up or delivery. In this example, a route is to be delineated for a truck to pick up
packages at five locations. A routing application can be developed to identify the most efficient route for any set
of pick-up locations. The highlighted line represents the most cost-effective way of linking the five locations.

Fig. 7: The most cost effective route links five point locations
on the street map.
 Surface analysis:
• Surface analysis: deals with the spatial distribution of surface information in terms of a three-
dimensional structure.
• The distribution of any spatial phenomenon can be displayed in a three-dimensional perspective
diagram for visual examination.
• A surface may represent the distribution of a variety of phenomena, such as population, crime, market
potential, and topography, among many others. The perspective diagram in figure 8 represents
topography of the terrain, generated from digital elevation model (DEM) through a series of GIS
based operations in surface analysis.

Fig. 8: Perspective diagram representing topography of the

terrain derived from a surface analysis.
 Grid analysis:
• Grid analysis: involves the processing of spatial data in a special, regularly spaced form. The following
illustration (figure 9) shows a grid-based model of fire progression.
• The darkest cells in the grid represent the area where a fire is currently underway.
• A fire probability model which incorporates fire behaviour in response to environmental conditions such as
wind and topography delineates areas that are most likely to burn in the next two stages.
• These areas are represented by lighter shaded cells. Fire probability models are especially useful to fire
fighting agencies for developing quick-response, effective suppression strategies.

Fig. 9: A fire behaviour model delineates areas of fire

progression based on a grid analysis.
 Fuzzy Spatial Analysis:
• Fuzzy Spatial Analysis
• Fuzzy spatial analysis is based on Fuzzy set theory formulated by Zadeh (1965). Fuzzy set theory
is a generalization of Boolean algebra to situations where zones of gradual transition are used to
divide classes, instead of conventional crisp boundaries.
• This is more relevant in many cases where one considers 'distance to certain zone' or 'distance to
road', in which case the influence of this factor is more likely to be some function of distance than
a binary 'yes' or 'no'.
• Also in fussy theory maps are prepared showing gradual change in the variable from very high to
very low, which is a true representation of the real world.
• As stated above, the conventional crisp sets allow only binary membership function(i.e. true or
false) where as a fuzzy set is a class that admits the possibility of partial membership, so fuzzy
sets are generalization of crisp sets to situations where the class membership or class boundaries
are not, or cannot be, sharply defined.
 Geostatistical Tools for Spatial Analysis

• Geostatistical Tools for Spatial Analysis

• Geostatistics studies spatial variability of regionalized variables: Variables that have an attribute
value and a location in a two or three dimensional space.

• Point Pattern Analysis

• Spatial Autocorrelation
• Interpolation
 Modeling/Analysis Issues Involved In GIS:

• Must understand data in totality and their relationships

• Data accuracy and quality
• Selecting right parameters for integration.
• Criteria formulation depending upon aim and objective of analysis.
Thank you

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